Loyola University Chicago

Looking northwest across our excavation area after 12 work days.

For six weeks in June and July of 1999, we continued our second season ofinvestigations at Macktown Shell Midden A (11-Wo-256) located in the MacktownForest Preserve about 12 miles north of Rockford, Illinois. Our progress wasmultiplied with the help of local community members and a larger crew ofuniversity students. We returned to the bluff area where we conducted testexcavations last year (see our web page from 1998). Our primary research goalthis year focused on understanding the intense Early Woodland periodoccupations. Ceramic designs and stone tool styles indicate these EarlyWoodland peoples at Macktown were involved in the archaeological culturedistributed across northern Illinois and southern Wisconsin known as the PrairiePhase (200 BC - AD 200). We also continued our deep testing of the underlyingpreceramic occupations of Archaic hunter-gatherers (8000-5000 BC).

Field of sunflowers near our camp. Sunflowers were first domesticated by Native Americans about 4000 years ago.

The Early Woodland cultural period is a very dynamic time of culturechange in North America during which many groups of hunter-gatherers began toadopt a farming lifeway after several thousand years as foragers of wild plantsand animals. This process included several closely related innovations andchanges such as regular use of pottery, taking more diverse but less efficientwild food resources, increasing the daily work effort though plant domesticationand cultivation, shifting from nomadism to settled village life, and changingfrom the spear-thrower to bow-and-arrow weaponry. In turn, these profoundeconomic changes set in motion some significant changes in social and politicalorganization. The exact process and importance of these economic and socialchanges remains very poorly defined among the Early Woodland peoples of northernIllinois. As a result, we hope that our work can contribute to the generaltheories about how this evolutionary process operates when hunter-gathererssettle down as village farmers.

General Research Design at the MacktownShell Midden

We are using four basic questions to guide our research at Macktown: 1) Whatis the role of pottery technology for these Early Woodland peoples? 2) Is thereevidence that Early Woodland peoples of northern Illinois were relying ondomesticated plants? 3) What is the dietary breadth of Early Woodlandpopulations at Macktown and how does that relate to the regional pattern ofsubsistence and the evidence of dietary change over time? 4) Is there evidenceof increasing sedentism during the Early Woodland?

We hope to be able toreconstruct many of the ceramic vessels recovered from our excavations. Forexample, these jar sherds come from a limited area of the site and represent anEarly Woodland ceramic type known as Prairie Bossed.

Loyolastudents in the archaeology laboratory are working on the analysis of remainsrecovered at Macktown in 1998-99. A few students have been awarded researchscholarships in support of their projects. Ceramic analysis is oriented atdefining the use and function of pottery through the reconstruction of vesselforms and functions and the analysis of spatial distribution patterns. Theadoption of pottery technology also suggests significant changes in labororganization for these groups and especially for women who are commonly involvedin ceramic production and plant food contributions.

Examples of stone tools from the site include finished projectile points and knives; toolsbroken in manufacture; and simple flake tools for cutting, scraping andperforating.

We are analyzing the stone tools and wasteflakes from Macktown to help reconstruct changes in settlement mobility and sitefunction. Artifacts from the Archaic hunter-gatherer levels underlying theWoodland horticulturalist levels are being compared to evaluate technologicalchanges over time. With increasing sedentariness, we expect to see an increasein the use of local stone resources, the replacement of portable biface coreswith unsystematic blocky cores, the increased recycling of discarded stone, pluseconomizing measures such as the heat treatment of stone. Different kinds oftools represented in the deposits as well as their characteristics can also beused to infer general settlement patterns of site function.

Bulk samples of sediment from excavation were placed within a flotation tank device thatcontains a barrel insert with window screen mesh on the bottom and a spout onthe top. Water is pumped into the bottom of the tank and the sediments aregently agitated by hand, which causes seeds and charcoal to float and be caughtin a fine mesh bag attached to the spout. Heavy items like stone and ceramicartifacts sink to the bottom of the insert where they can be retrieved from thevery fine mesh window screen.

Our questions aboutprehistoric diet are being addressed through the analysis of floral and faunalremains at the site. An aggressive program of flotation sampling was conductedin 1999 with around 240 liters of sediment sampled for ancient plant remains andother minute items from these prehistoric occupations. A paleoethnobotanistwill look for evidence of plant exploitation and plant domestication in theseflotation samples. The abundance of freshwater mussels in these archaeologicaldeposits seems to reflect summer-fall occupations when the mussel beds areaccessible because of low water. Vertebrate remains identified thus far aredominated by aquatic species (mostly turtles and fish), which supports theconclusion that the site was primarily occupied by Woodland groups during thesummer. Analysis of these faunal remains by a zooarchaeologist will allow us toidentify each animal species represented, the parts and ages of those animals,the relative contribution each makes to the diet, and the evidence of humanmodification that may tell us about butchery and cooking practices.

Some of the bones from unit 564N335E L-3 including a deer astragulus, otoliths andpharangeal of a freshwater drum and part of a turtle plastron. These are someof the most common animals represented in the deposits.

Much of the current evidence at Macktown appears to suggest repeated summer seasonoccupations at this location, which conforms with the regionalsettlement-subsistence model proposed by James Theler in Woodland EconomicTraditions (published by the Iowa State Archaeologist Office, 1987). However,we intend to continue testing this economic model by conducting an investigationof the changing strategies of technology and mobility during the Archaic toWoodland transition. In addition, we are actively seeking to understand thechronology, occupational history and complex site formation processes of thecultural deposits at Macktown because these issues have direct implications forour ability to effectively deal with questions about the evidence of past humanbehavior.

Public Archaeology Week

This year our fieldwork began with a five-day excavation for local adultavocational archaeologists. We believe it is important to involve the generalpublic in our research at Macktown and were pleased to host eight folks, most ofwhom did not have previous field experience. Knowing that participation in theexcavation was a priority for these volunteers, we quickly but carefully removedthe backfill from the 1998 excavations andopened a row of one meter squares immediately west of our deepest unit from lastyear (563N335E).

Participants in the avocational field school excavation ofthe 563N 331-334E line. Looking west around excavations from left to right:Rita H., Jean D., David S., Andrea W., Gerald R., Brian W. (field assistant),Renee M., Gina B., and Duane S. (working at screens out of view).

Following our established methods from 1998, we excavatedthese units using 50 x 50 cm quads with arbitrary 10 cm levels. All musselshell, burned rock and artifacts were left in place until we could determine ifthey represented a cluster that could be identified as a "feature"such as a hearth, workshop area, garbage pit, or posthole. Because mostprehistoric features at Macktown appear to be irregular clusters of food refuseand artifacts, they can be easily damaged or destroyed during excavation if theyare not carefully isolated and mapped before removal.

Our effortswere shortly rewarded when we encountered four discrete clusters that we couldidentify as features. This view (looking west) shows these excavations atvarious stages of progress with some shell and burned rock clusters emerging.

Atthe west end of this trench we found a circle of rocks filled with ash andcharred wood about 10 cm below the ground surface. However, we were soondisillusioned to learn that this hearth represented the archaeology of modernindustrial American civilization when we found several old cigarette filters,pull tabs, bottle caps, and a Slim Jim wrapper!

Macktown'sultramodern historic artifacts included beer and soda caps (some with corkliners), a car wax bottle cap, aluminum foil, a guitar pick and a plastic bead.

Althoughour discovery of this 1960s-70s era feature was a disappointment, we learnedthat artifacts and features could be buried quite rapidly in this part of thesite. It can be annoying to find out you are digging the remains of what mighthave been family picnics and bonfire parties of a couple decades ago but theseremains from the "archaeology of us" provided some good lessons in howarchaeology works as well as several hours of fanciful speculation andamusement. More importantly, we learned something about changes during the longhistory of human activities at this place and how this complex archaeologicalsite formed. All the other features contained burned rock, freshwater musselshell, bone, stone tools, and ancient pottery fragments associated with theprehistoric Woodland cultures.

Loyola Block Excavation

Participants in the 1999 Loyola field school: front row: Jenn W., Jennifer S., Yoko N., MauraD., Salma Y.; back row: Sara P., Brian W., Clare T., Dr. Dan Amick, Tanya S.,Debbie J., Holly A., and Erika B.

A group of 11 studentsfrom Loyola and a few other universities participated in the 5-week field schoolprogram in 1999. We enjoyed mild summer temperatures and little rainfall so wespent most days on the site doing excavation. Students were trained in thestandard procedures of archaeological excavation and field recording and becameproficient archaeological technicians by the end of the field school. Thisprofessional training is required for students who want to pursue employment inapplied archaeology. Several students from previous Loyola field schools havegone to work during the summer and after graduation for private contractingfirms as well as federal and state agencies including the National Park Service,Forest Service, and Department of Defense.

Students beginning work on the block excavation and the adjacent deep trench. Thislocation was chosen on the basis of testing results from the previous season. Each student was responsible for all aspects of excavation and recording withintheir assigned 1 x 1 meter square although they frequently worked in teams.

Our first task this year was to establish an excavation grid for a 5 x 5 meterblock. The block excavation was placed immediately west of two test pits weexcavated in 1998. We decided to excavate a broad horizonal exposure to helpreconstruct the nature of prehistoric activities and archaeological formationprocesses in this area of the site. This block excavation also increased ourability to understand the context and chronology of the site, which contributesto our investigation of cultural history and behavioral change in northernIllinois.

Birds-eyeview of the block excavation and trench (along the lower edge of this picture). Nearby, each student keeps digging tools (trowel, wooden picks, brushes, anddustpans), unit paperwork, and a bucket for dirt (which is taken to the shakerscreens out of the picture to the right). Additional excavation supplies arestockpiled out of the picture.

The Winnebago County Forest Preserve District offered theopportunity to use an elevated bucket to photograph the excavations fromoverhead. This unusual viewpoint shows students working in the block and trench(east margin of the block). North is oriented toward the right side of thepicture. Excavation units are at various stages of completion and the studentsare rotated around the excavation block to gradually deepen and expand theexcavation while giving each person adequate room to work. Coordinating thisteamwork as each person completed another excavation level was a daily andhourly concern. Plywood sheets were placed around the excavation to help reducethe chance of profile collapses. On the excavation floor, plywood and blackplastic were used to reduce drying and crumbling of the deposits and to minimizedamage from our constant trampling in the area. Charcoal braziers werefrequently placed around the excavation block and fueled with damp wood chips toproduce smoke that helped discourage the hungry mosquitoes. Adjacent picnictables provided convenient places to do paperwork, stash personal gear and takework breaks. Located in a mowed grassy area surrounded by an open canopy ofhardwood trees, this park-like setting is unusually comfortable for field schoolstudents.

Excavation of Features 8 and 9, a couple dense clusters of burned rock and mussel shellsituated in the upper levels of Feature 15.

After acouple weeks of fieldwork, students became more confident in their abilities toexcavate and record the subtle remains of ancient cookery, house cleaning andworkshop debris. Earthworms and other soil mixing agents have homogenized thesediments so that the stratigraphic distinctions of layering and prehistoricpits cannot be seen. As a result, we leave all items in place until we candetermine whether clustering is present and if it can be interpreted as theresult of human action. If so, the cluster is designated as a "feature"and isolated for separate removal. We defined 16 features in the blockexcavations last summer. One was the ultramodern fire pit discussed above,another was a twisting rodent tunnel that was filled later with shell. Theremaining features included several shell dumps of various sizes and shapes, alarge roasting pit and three trash-filled postholes.

Feature 6 is anespecially dense cluster of mussel shell located in 564N335E. This tight clustering may indicate trash dumping from ceramic or basketry containers.

Feature 7(left) is a flattened cluster of mussel shell that may have been scattered onthe surface after dumping in 564N332E. It is underlain by Feature 16, a similarpancake cluster separated by a few centimeters of dirt. Feature 10 (right) is avertical cylinder of shell and rock about 15 cm in diameter with an abrupt flatbottom. Based on feature size and shape, spatial relationships and fillmaterials, we believe Features 10-11-14 may represent the post holes from acircular Late Woodland house or other structure encountered on the west side ofthe block.

In the east-central portion of our excavation block, we discovered a massiveconcentration of burned rock, mussel shell and bone. This debris appears to bethe fill of a shallow oblong pit about two meters in diameter and at least 20 cmdeep. The stratigraphic cross-section of this pit can be seen in the deeptrench wall (look for the high density of mussel shell flecks that form ashallow bowl shape). We believe this large feature may be a roasting pit forsteaming mussels, fish, and other foods. Hot rocks were used to retain cookingheat. Much of the scatter of burned rock and mussel shell throughout the blockexcavation may be the debris from cleaning out this roasting pit. Althoughcharcoal is poorly preserved at the site, we managed to collect enough to submitfor radiocarbon dating this pit feature.

In addition to the household activity areas exposed during our work inthe 5 x 5 meter block, we were interested in continuing our investigation of the vertical dimension of these deposits. Our testing in 1998 had demonstrated thepresence of stone tool artifacts extending far below the Woodland ceramic zone. We removed the backfill from units 563N335E and 565N335E excavated in 1998. Excavation was continued in 563N335E to the sandstone bedrock about 130 cm belowthe surface. Stone tool artifacts were found up to 120 cm below the surface. Dart points found in these lower deposits document earlier occupations of MiddleArchaic (5000-3000 BC) and Early Archaic (7000-5000 BC) inhabitants at the site.

Digging thelowest levels in 563N335E. Learning to dig in a phone booth is challenging butvery worthwhile in this case. We found evidence of Early Archaic occupationsfrom the St. Charles phase (ca. 6000 BC). These earlier occupations lie underthe Woodland habitations about 60-100 cm below the modern ground surface.

Digging the deep trench on the east side of the excavation block allowed us to work fromthe profile face as we excavated the block. In addition to providing astratigraphic slice through the site, our work in the trench revealed evidenceof earlier occupations from Archaic hunter-gatherer groups. We also used thisopportunity to employ special techniques for excavating unit 564N335E in thedeep trench. Each artifact was recorded by its exact location and orientation(vertical, horizontal, tilted). This detailed record of provenience will beused to evaluate patterns of artifact movement after burial. Many processes areknown to move objects buried in the ground. We expect that artifact movementmay have resulted from earthworms, burrowing animals, plant roots and seasonalfreezing and thawing.

Late in the afternoon of the last excavation day at the site, students work quickly torecord final elevations and make stratigraphic drawings of the profiles. Thefollowing morning we lined the excavation with plastic sheets and filled thehole with the backdirt screened during our digging.

About 8 cubic meters of earth were excavated during the 1999 season. Because archaeological excavation actually destroys the site, it is important tokeep precise and careful control of the location of all the objects found andthe dirt removed for screening or flotation. Proper records of location,usually called "provenience," are essential for our ability toreconstruct the spatial context of objects during analysis. This primaryconcern is one reason that professional archaeologists prefer that untrainedpersons do not remove any remains they may find. Once an object is removed fromthe ground, it is difficult or impossible to determine context and proveniencewith the accuracy and precision needed to make reliable interpretations. Unlessan object is in eminent danger of being destroyed or lost, it is best to leavethe object in place and contact a professional archaeologist for advice.

Only themeticulous excavation and mapping of Feature 10 and the consideration of itscontext relative to artifacts and other features allowed us to tentativelyidentify it as representing a post hole from a prehistoric house. Certainidentification will depend on predicting the placement of additional post holelocations during future excavations.

Modern archaeologistsare also concerned with preserving a portion of each site, if possible, forstudy in the distant future when archaeological methods will be more advanced. An excellent example of that lesson occurred in the years before radiocarbondating had been developed. Much of the charcoal collected in those earlierexcavations was simply thrown away, although today we would attempt to identifythe plant species represented and possibly use it to determine the age of thematerial. Because it is not always possible to predict advances inarchaeological techniques, archaeologists often leave portions of sitesunexcavated. We hope that much of this portion of the site will remainundisturbed for future researchers.

Shell Midden Salvage

wetter than normal spring caused the Rock River to remain high, which causedconsiderable erosion of the buried prehistoric shell midden on the narrowfloodplain bench. Comparison with our measurements of the bank location inprevious years showed that damage to the shell midden was accelerating.

Once water levelssubsided, we recruited volunteers from the Sauk Trail Archaeological Society andMacktown Living History and Education Center to help us record the erosiondamage and to map the newly exposed stratigraphy and archaeological remains.

About 10-20 centimeters of the bank slumped into the riverand was lost between 1997 and 1999. At that rate, we expect much of shellmidden deposits along this 5-10 meter wide alluvial bench may be lost in thenext decade. This slumping erosion is largely due to man-made fluctuations inthe water level because of a flood control dam situated downstream in Rockford. In addition, the wake from recreational boaters passing at high speeds causeswave erosion damage, which severely undercuts the river bank at this location.

Several stratigraphic sections were cleaned for stratigraphic recording. These profilesreveal more than two meters of flood deposits that neatly separate the lenses ofmussel shell and rock.

The river bank area of the siteoffers a unique opportunity to recover a sequence of discrete activity floorsthat appear to range from Late Archaic (3000-500 BC) through Late Woodland (AD500-900) times. We hope to conduct excavations in this area of the site duringthe 2000 field season. This work is desperately needed to salvage informationthat is being lost through continual erosion. In addition, these floodplaindeposits provide good stratigraphic separation, which will help us better definechronological sequences in the region and provide improved opportunities for usto reconstruct specific activity areas. We expect prehistoric human activitiesalong the river bank will mostly involve the bulk processing of aquaticresources related to the household activities on the bluff.

Field School Program

All work of the Loyola Archaeology Field School is personally directed andsupervised by Dr. Dan Amick (Loyola UniversityChicago), who is a Registered Professional Archaeologist (RPA) and is certifiedunder state regulations administered by the Illinois Historic PreservationAgency. A rotating crew of field supervisors and teaching assistants from localuniversities and archaeology contracting firms also participate. Field schoolstudents have enjoyed guest lectures from our research team including Dr.Rochelle Lurie (project history), Dr. Katie Egan-Bruhys (paleoethnobotany), Dr.Juliann Van Nest (geomorphology), Dr. James Theler (freshwater mussels), SteveKuehn (vertebrate remains), as well as presentations by Dr. Amick and theteaching assistants.

Our work at Macktown is performed under permit and review of theIllinois Historic Preservation Agency. Each year a technical report on ourresults is submitted to this agency and based upon their study and acceptance ofour report, we can submit a proposal that provides details and justification forany additional fieldwork we wish to undertake.

Opportunities for Student Participation

Students and community members are invited to participate in our researchprogram. We can always use volunteer help on-campus in the Loyola ArchaeologyLab working with the materials we have collected each summer. We are currentlyplanning a third season at Macktown in the summer of 2000.

Visit the Loyola Archaeology Field School 2000 webpage for application information and to learn more about this program.