10. Oct. 28, 30 The age of the Crusades; Growing complexity of government, ideas,
and society in the 13th century
Tuesday: Kishlansky 40. Song
of Roland;
Usamah Ibn Munqidh,
Excerpts on the Franks (web)
I. INVENTION OF CHIVALRY
A. Problem of the knights
Around 1000 AD, a near total break down in royal authority in much of Europe..
With the weakening of kingship by the late 10th century - local aristocrats ("lords") rule
Dukes, counts, and even lesser nobles began to act like mini-kings in the areas of influence ("counties") -
They collected the taxes, they decided to wage war - usually against their neighbors; they judged legal disputes and crimes
(so we have gone from democracy, oligarchy, monarch - to aristocracy)
Aristocracy divided into lords and vassals
Lords controlled most of the land.
A lord would grant a fief to a vassal (usually a knight)
Fiefs
were pieces of property - like a castle and the territory attached to it.
The knight would swear an oath
of loyalty (of fealty) to the count - he would become the "man" -
the vassal - of the count. (In
readings for Friday, you will read some examples of oaths of fealty)
When the lord needed his military
services for some campaign, the vassal was bound to fight for him
(if he didn't, he lost his fief)
Most vassals were knights -
mounted warriors with heavy armor
A knight was a man who could
afford a horse and armor and knew how to use them.
It took a fair amount of wealth to
purchase horse and armor - so the knights came from the wealthier members of
medieval society.
Military techniques these medieval
knights used were different from fighters in earlier societies we have studied
For one,
their armor - often made of iron (chain male) - heavier than Roman, or Moslem
armor: these guys were like little
tanks - covered with metal - very hard to wound
Knights
fought on horseback =
The stirrup - the loop you slip you foot in when you ride a
horse - made fighting on horseback feasible
Stirrups
only came into use in Europe in the 7 or 8th centuries.
3.
Knights were not paid salaries - they were not professional soldiers like the
Romans had (and Moslems of Middle Ages still had)
Instead
they were a hereditary aristocracy - who fought because they liked to - because
it was the honorable way to spend your time, and because this was they way to
acquire wealth through booty - and fiefs.
In order the exercise this power,
lords and their vassal knights were based in fortresses - castles -
From the late 10th
century on, stone castles start to be built throughout Europe.
(IMAGES)
With
towers, moats, and walls, designed to keep a lord's men safe from attack
The knights with direct control
over these castles were called castellans
These
castellans often treated the territory around the castle as their own private
kingdom
The castellans and higher
aristocrats (counts, dukes) also needed the loyalty of armed men - the knights
- in order to keep power.
After 1000 AD - much of Europe is
ruled by feudal lords - dukes, counts, and castellans with their castles and
vassal knights.
In their spheres of influence -
their counties - these feudal lords acted like kings - collecting taxes, trying
criminals, fighting wars with one another.
There was a great deal of violence
by the knights against the peasantry (serfs) and church.
Part of what will help “tame” the
knights and redirect their violence against outsiders if the invention of a new
ethical code – chivalry in the 12th century.
B. Invention of chivalry
What was chivalry?
The
word itself if derived from cheval– the French word for "horse"
Moral
code for knights:
1.
courage in battle
2.
loyalty to your lord (count, king, etc.)
3.
holy warfare: knights should fight for
God
(ceremony of dubbing: prospective knights would pray all
night in a vigil before becoming a knight, and in a ceremony their weapons
would be blessed)
(prospect of Paradise for fighting in God's service)
4.
Courtesy - courtly manners – i.e.
behaving like a “gentleman” esp. to
ladies
This code of chivalry was never
promulgated like a formal law - but communicated through popular
entertainment
through
songs, poetry, and stories - courtly
romances.
(for modern parallel, think of how
movies like the Godfather helped define code of honor for the Mafia, or how
modern police shows, influence expectations of how police should behave).
Some influence from Islamic
Spain
two genres in Andalusia were the muwassah (Schoeler, 1990, 444) and the zagal (Schoeler, 1990, 445).
The first was written in the 10th century in classical Arabic. They were mainly songs belonging to the courtly love-poetry.
love is represented as the adoration of an aristocratic "Lady" by her "vassal."
Other topics are wine, generosity, death, jealous lovers and traitors.
One of the earliest European courtly Romance - the Song of Roland, written in France ca. 1100 AD.
written by a cleric.
This is long poem about Charlemagne and his men (esp. Roland), campaigning against the Moslems in Spain.
You can see beginnings of holy war (later Crusade) in this poem:
The poem glorified violence against non-Christians - the "vicious pagans" "guilty race" - i.e. the Moslems (Saracens).
Christian bishops were there fighting with the army - calling “ a blessing on our barons" as they killed Moslems.
When you read it look for other aspects of chivalry - attitudes towards courage; loyalty of vassals to lords; courtesy(?)
Song of Roland was just beginning of the courtly romances.
By end of 12th century, Europeans – especially the French – developed a flourishing literature of courtly romances - some about war like Roland, others about love.
C. BEGINNINGS OF COURTLY LOVE: 12TH CENTURY
These romances were written both in Latin (like Roland) and the vernacular.
The poets who sung stories of love were called the troubadours – and they were active especially in the courts of France.
It is important to understand that the people who patronized the troubadours and the writers of courtly romances were those who desired to tame the knights:
the high nobility, kings, and queens who wanted to get knights to be loyal to them.
The bishops who wanted knights to respect the church.
Authors of courtly romances were often clerics.
Princes kept troubadours at their courts.
These princely patrons of the troubadours were as often as not women – queens like Eleanor of Aquitaine.
End result of courtly literature: instilled ideal of chivalry in European knights - including ideal of fighting in service of God, instead of in opposition of god.
Instead of plundering the surrounding territory like the knights in the Miracles of St. Foy, the knights of Europe began to value loyalty to their earthly lords and ladies, protection of the church, and war against non-Christians.
And these new knightly values inspired the Crusades.
SUMMARY:
Problem of the knights
Invention of chivalry
4 aspects: courage, loyalty to lord, Christianization of warfare, and courtesy
II. Origin of First Crusade
Within Europe, invention of chivalry: rulers and clerics were expending great effort to "tame" the knights - to make them accountable to God, to redirect their violence away from their fellow Christians and against the “enemies” of God.
even before the First Crusade, Christian Europeans began to fight Muslims in northern Spain (Song of Roland)
Political changes in Middle East also helped spark the Crusades – a new Muslim offensive against the Byzantines and increased persecution of Christian minorities.
Islamic world under the caliphs (Abbasid caliphs esp.) had been much more politically unified than Europe (and more literate, urbanized).
In general, good treatment of Jewish and Christian minorities (protected peoples)
willingness of Moslem government to allow Christian (and Jewish) pilgrimage to Jerusalem, where there were many Christian churches
Stable border relations with Byzantine Empire (Remember that the Byzantines were successors of eastern Romans:
Arabs had conquered most of the Byzantine empire - but not all
Byzantines still held Balkans, Greece, and Asia Minor.)
Turkish take-over in late 10th century
but late 10th century, all this began to change:
After 945, Abbasid Empire began to fall apart (same thing happened to them as happened to Romans: Arabs no longer eager to fight; began to rely on foreign immigrants – Turks in this case – instead of their own citizens; Turks eventually take over the government – in 1055 CE)
Newly converted Turks were very warlike, attracted to idea of jihad (as holy war against non-Moslems), and not respectful towards non-Moslem minorities.
In 1071 Moslem Seljuk Turks captured Jerusalem and begin to destroy churches and synagogues; mistreat Christian pilgrims.
1071 CE: Battle of Manzikert: Seljuk Turks defeated huge Byzantine army.
As a result, the Byzantines lost Asia Minor.
Byzantine appeal to the Pope
Byzantine emperor appealed to Pope in Rome for help
B. FIRST CRUSADE 1095-1099 CE
Pope’s Aims
Now the Byzantine Christians - what we call Orthodox Christians - had never recognized the Pope's authority over their church, but both the Catholics and Orthodox Christians still recognized that they were part of the same church.
So Pope Urban II saw an opportunity here - he would get knights of Europe to help the Byzantines against the Moslems, and in return the two churches could make peace with one another - Christendom could be united.
In 1095, the Pope began to preach Crusade - calling upon the Christians of Europe to defend their brethren against the Moslems - to expel the Moslems from the Byzantine empire, and if possible even make Jerusalem Christian again.
- (Jerusalem had been in Moslem hands for 400+ years).
What were the Crusades?
- European holy wars against non-Christians and heretics – esp. Moslems.
Word "Crusade" comes from Latin word for cross - crux - because Crusading knights wore cross on their shields and clothing. (PICTURE
- The pope - Pope Urban II - was the one to call the first Crusade.
- By participating in a Crusade, a knight won forgiveness of sins – if he died in the Crusade, he had a good chance of heaven.
The novelty of the Crusades was that for the first time war for Christians was a holy act.
Before, war could sometimes be justified – theologians like Augustine had recognized "just wars" when it they were acts of self defense, or an effort to recover territory which had been illegally seized.
What the Crusades did was make war against non-Christians not only just – but holy – war against the infidel helped the warrior reach paradise (somewhat like Islamic Jihad, although Jihad had not involved forced conversion)
Pope Urban's call for a Crusade was a huge success.
Thousands of Europeans gathered up arms and began to march or sail to the East.
Don't think that these first Crusaders were anything like an organized army -
Some were ordinary poor people - even women - not trained to fight - but believing God would bring them victory.
Groups of Crusaders all travelled separately - some by land - some by sea.
One early band - under a zealous preacher called Peter the Hermit - didn't even wait till they got to Asia Minor to start killing non-Christians.
They turned on the enemies of God - the non-Christian - in Europe.
Peter's Crusaders slaughtered the Jewish inhabitants of parts of Holy Roman Empire (Spier, Worms, Mainz) - one of the first times though not the last that Jews of Germany would suffer Christian anti-Semiticism. (PICTURE)
(it should be noted that popes did not want Jews hurt at all, and were quite horrified with some the popular acts of violence the call to Crusade had sparked).
Thousands of Crusaders actually did make it to Asia Minor - ready to fight the Moslems.
They landed near Constantinople and asked the Byzantine emperor to supply them with food, etc.
(they Byzantine emperor Alexius was quite horrified by the arrival of these violent, illiterate, fanatical Crusaders -
they were not at all what Byzantines had expected when asked Pope for help)
No one expected Crusaders to succeed against the Moslems -
after all, the Moslems were famous warriors - on their home territory - with excellent supply lines - where the Crusaders had none
But knights of First Crusades outmatched everybody in fanatic acts of courage and cruelty:
Here's a picture of them at siege of Nicaea -
They shot the decapitated heads of Moslem soldiers into the town like cannons - using their catapaults - as form of psychological warfare. (PICTURE)
When their preachers told them to expel the female camp-followers, they catapaulted these women into the Moslem cities - as sort of human sacrifice.
And when they captured the Moslem cities - they inflicted massacres on the civilians which shocked both the Byzantines and the Moslems
Killing women, children - putting babies on spits -
And throughout the Crusade, the Crusaders were seeing visions of Christ - of saints - leading them - promising them victory - inciting them to fight on even when they ran out of food, water.
The Crusaders won the first Crusade - they reconquered western Asia Minor - and
In 1099 took what to them was the center of the earth - the holiest city on earth - Jerusalem
The Crusaders set up new Christian principalities in the Near East - called the Crusader States (or Outremer) in French.
Europeans had for the first time since the Roman Empire become conquerors again.
Why did they win?
Moslems disunified and fighting among each other
Moslems not expecting the attacks
C. LATER CRUSADES
But Crusader succes wouldn't last.
The Moslems had been initially caught off guard by the Crusaders - and they had been fighting among themselves.
This would soon change: both caliphs and lesser Moslem leaders organized resistance.
In the 12th century, they started to get territory back.
The Popes called new Crusades to resist the new Moslem offensive.
2nd Crusade (1147-1149) tried to get back parts of Asia Minor - but the Crusaders were utterly defeated by Nur al-Din (Syrian leader).
In the decades after this, a new leader rose up in Egypt - a Kurd named Saladin .
Because of his military talent, Saladin had been appointed commander of Moslem forces from Egypt.
He united Moslems in Egypt and then got control of Syria.
In 1187, Saladin took back Jerusalem in the Battle of Hattin.
The Third Crusade was called up to get Jerusalem back.
The most important kings of Europe led this Crusade - including Frederick Barbarossa king of Holy Roman Empire, Richard I the Lion-Hearted of England.
They failed.
Jerusalem stayed in Moslem hands, and over the next century, the Europeans would lose of their possession in the Near East.
No surprise that Moslems ended up expelling the Crusaders..
The Moslems had most of the advantages on their side – they were richer, had bigger armies (since it was on their home turf), had professional, paid armies.
The knights had heavier armor and horses - but the Moslems were better archers, quicker on horseback, and more sophisticated stategists.
The Moslems also by the 13th century, had a new type of warrior - the Mameluks esp. in Egupt -
The Mameluks were technically slaves - usually Turkish in origin-
Owned by the state - and trained as boys to fight.
Skill and fanatical courage of Mameluk cavalry important in defeating Crusaders.
The only reason the Crusaders had
even temporary success against the Moslems was because the Moslems had other
enemies to face - the Moslems were fighting among themselves initially because
of the Turkish invasion, and in the 13th century, they were invaded
by a fierce nomadic people – the Mongols.
Why were the Crusades
important?
Because of their impact on Europeans.
The Crusades helped direct the energies of the warrior class of Europe away from Europeans and towards outsiders.
This not only helped save Europe from being destroyed by internal war, but reintroduced Europeans to the Near East – where they would learn many things.
Europeans learned techniques of fighting from the Moslems, Turks, and Mongols.
In particular – archery, and the importance of infantry as well as cavalry
Europeans saw real armies again – and in the 13th century began to recruit armies back home.
They learned how to campaign at a distance - in hostile territory.
Above, all, the Crusades prevented the European military from being fossilized in a chivalric form.
Even though it would be long time before Europeans had military superiority over their neighbors, the Crusades helped to begin the trend.
“Crusade” served as justification for war against other non-Catholics
–Slavs of eastern Europe
–Africans and native Americans
–Other Christians (Byzantines, Protestants
This is only the military significance of the Crusades.
There were also cultural and economic effects.
European knights while Crusading got a taste for Eastern luxuries.
Soon after the Crusades began, trade between the east and Europe revives with the Crusader kingdoms like Jerusalem acting as middlemen.
Europe would export its cloth, metals, and slaves to the Moslem world, in return for spices, paper, sugar, and silk.
In addition to trade in goods, Europe began to acquire learning.
The Moslems and the Byzantines were responsible for transmitting Greek philosophy and mathematics to the West,
Moreover, Europeans model some of their educational forms on Moslem – in the 12 th century the first universities appear in Europe, inspired partly by the Moslem universities (madrasa).
More of this next week
SUMMARY