April 18: Recovery of fourth century
Over last two weeks we’ve been talking about crisis of the Roman empire and economic changes which might have been connected with it.
Today I’m going to talk about how Roman empire recovered from this crisis.
The Roman recovery was largely the work of two men: Diocletian and Constantine.
These two emperors were remarkably different in some ways – Constantine was the first Christian emperor, Diocletian the worst persecutor of Christians.
However, their administrative reforms had a common theme – and that was imperial centralization.
I. DIOCLETIAN AND ROMAN RECOVERY
Diocletian rose from peasant background to be emperor; got control over a state which had been in civil war for over 50 years; set up a stable form of government which would last several more centuries; and then voluntarily retired.
Diocletian is a hard emperor to know – both because he kept his private life private, and because the main sources for him are Christian – the Christians had good reason to hate Diocletian.
The basic facts about Diocletian are fairly clear.
He was born in Illyria – perhaps Dalmatia between Italy and Greece – at the beginning of the 3rd century crisis (in 230’s)
His family was humble, not even able to educate him decently.
So Diocletian looked for his fortune in the Roman army.
He became a commander in the Danube region – key border area with the Germans; he later became a commander in the Domestics – the cavalry part of the imperial bodyguard.
Then the emperor at the time (Carus, otherwise not very important) died during a campaign against the Persians.
His sons were too young to rule effectively – so Diocletian did away with them.
By 285, after through a series of civil wars, Diocletian got control of the entire empire – rather rare achievement in the 3rd century.
He traveled from region to region and put down various rebellions and expelled invaders - he put down one of the few peasant rebellions in ancient history (Bagaudae in Gaul).
After getting control, he set about reforming the army and administration so that the constant usurpations would stop.
Diocletian was in fact a genius at administration, Roman style
– somewhat like Octavian Augustus – brutal to those who opposed him, good at propaganda (except where the Christians were concerned), creative in his reforms, and, I think, deep down as much concerned with the good of the Roman state as with his own ambition.
DIOCLETIAN’S REFORMS: POLITICAL, ECONOMIC, RELIGIOUS
1. Political reforms
System of multiple emperors (augusti and caesars)
One of the reasons for provincial groups constantly proclaiming new emperors was desire to have emperor at hand – to fight for their defense and work for their interests
Diocletian decided to meet this desire in a systematic way.
He introduced the "Tetrarchy," or "Rule by Four."
In 286, Diocletian promoted Maximianus to the rank of Augustus, "Senior Emperor,"
and in 293 he appointed two new Caesars, Constantius (the father of Constantine I ), who was given Gaul and Britain in the west, and Galerius, who was assigned the Balkans in the east.
By instituting his Tetrarchy, Diocletian also hoped to solve another problem.
In the Augustan Principate, there had been no constitutional method for choosing new emperors.
According to Diocletian's plan, the successor of each Augustus would be the respective Caesar, who then would name a new Caesar.
Caesars were to be chosen for their talent, not their blood relationship with a previous emperor.
Diocletian’s reform of the Tetrarchy never worked perfectly - not even in his own life time, since sons had a tendency to expect to inherit the empire (beginning with Constantine, son of Constantius).
However, the practice of dividing the empire stuck.
The emperors still believed they were ruling one state – they issued legislation with the names of both senior emperors (augusti), officials easily moved between parts of the empire.
Yet Diocletian’s Tetrarchy began the process which would culminate with the split of the empire in 395 between east and west.
Provincial government
Most important task was get control of the provinces.
Diocletian thought that the governors had too much power – this had led some of them (like proconsul of Africa, Gordian in 238) to try to become emperor.
Governors also were less effective administrators because they had big territories to govern, and not much staff to help them (the Roman empire had been bureaucratically underdeveloped before the late empire).
Three reforms with reference to provinces:
1. Diocletian subdivided the circa 50 provinces into about 100 – doubling the number.
2. He completely separated military (comes, dux) and civil commands (praeses, proconsul) – the governor no longer had any influence over the military, only civil and judicial functions.
3. He apportioned these provinces among 12 "dioceses," each diocese was under a "vicar", who was then under one of the 4 praetorian prefects (REPEAT)
The praetorian prefects and sometimes the vicars stood in the place of the emperor for hearing judicial appeals and issuing edicts about administration.
The result of this was more effective imperial government of the provinces.
Also fewer provincial rebellions since the governors had no control over the military.
2. Economic reforms
The economy was in a sorry state by the 280’s – although perhaps more at the upper levels than at the bottom.
-The coinage stabilized
- Diocletian issued a new coinage in gold, silver, and bronze – which was not debased.
aureus was new gold coin (Constantine would change it slightly and call solidus)
- Municipal coinage done away with (part of imperial centralization)
However, improving precious metal content of gold and silver coins was not enough by itself because there simply was not enough gold and silver available.
So new coinage accompanied by
- "Maximum Price Edict" was next, issued in 301
This Edict gave the maximum price consumers (including the state) should pay for an enormous variety of goods and services – day wages for laborers, wine, clothing – both cheap and high quality varieties.
This edict is a great source for economic historians – but it was not a success at the time.
Diocletian intended to curb inflation, but he edict only drove goods onto the black market.
Diocletian finally accepted the ruin of the money economy and revised the tax system so that it was based on payments in kind .
- The soldiers too came to be paid in kind.
This new reliance on in-kind payment – sort of what is happening in Russian manufacturing when Soviet Union collapsed – was Diocletian’s most successful economic reform.
- Compulsory service
In order to assure the long term survival of the empire, Diocletian identified certain occupations which he felt would have to be performed.
These were known as the "compulsory services."
They included such occupations as soldiers, bakers, decurions of town councils , and tenant farmers – coloni - (who were the largest single group of the population).
These functions became hereditary, and those engaging in them were prohibited from changing their careers
The repetitious nature of these laws, however, suggests that they were not widely obeyed.
Even at the peasant level, as long as the parents found someone to take over the family farm, the other children might try to make their living in another way.
Still, even if not always effectively enforced, the compulsory services were a stunning example of state inference in the ordinary life of citizens.
RELIGION
Diocletian was a religious conservative.
He as one of those who believed the disasters of the 3rd century had come about partly because the Romans no longer honored the old gods.
He associated his own imperial office with the highest of Roman gods – Jupiter, and his second in command – Maximinianus was associated with Hercules.
This did not mean that Diocletian actually thought he was Jupiter.
It was more that Jupiter, the top god, was protecting the highest office of the land – and people should encourage him to do so by sacrificing to Jupiter for the emperor’s sake.
The Christians of course refused to participate in the imperial cult or any other non-Christian cult.
They even had the nerve to start building a giant cathedral within sight of Diocletian’s palace in the Balkans (at Nicomedia)
Christians also began to make more conversions in the imperial army – and soldiers most of all were supposed to honor the imperial cult and Roman divinities.
303 AD – Diocletian and his coemperors began what the Christians called "the Great Persecution."
Encouraged by his Caesar Galerius, Diocletian in 303 issued a series of four increasingly harsh decrees against Christians.
The first edicts mostly targeted the clergy – bishops were supposed to hand over their Bibles to the magistrates to be destroyed.
Those who refused were executed.
Hundreds – perhaps several thousand Christian priests and bishops died.
Later edict required all Christians to offer sacrifices to traditional Roman gods or to be either executed or sent to hard labor in the mines.
Diocletian’s persecution of the Christians in fact badly misfired.
These martyrs to the state started to become the new heroes for Roman citizens – the new faith spread even more than before.
hundreds, eventually thousands, of martyr tales (“passions”) were written and read aloud.
Appealing not just because of reward of heaven promised to martyrs, but also because martyrdom appealed to certain old fashioned Roman values – courage in face of opposition, endurance, discipline and self-sacrifice, obedience to superiors – in this case God and his priests.
More damaging to the church than the actual martyrdoms was the fact that some priests and bishops went ahead and handed over the Bibles.
These clerics were called "traitors" – traditores – "those who had handed over"
After Constantine granted toleration to Christians, enormous
hostility would arise between those who refused to give in, and the traditores.
SUMMARY OF DIOCLETIANS’ REFORMS
- Tetrarchy – 4 emperors instead of 2; succession to be decided beforehand, and based on talent, not birth.
- Provincial reforms – subdivided provinces, separated governor’s civil power from military power, divided empire into quarters each under praetorian prefect, dioceses under vicars.
- Anti inflation measures: Restored previous metal content of coinage; set price caps on goods and services; and in the end, transferred some tax payment and military payment to in kind instead of money.
- Compulsory services – to force decurions to stay in their cities and invest their wealth in city buildings and fiscal measure; force peasants to stay on land.
- Religion – tried to impose the state religion – the imperial cult – on everyone.
Targeted the Christians in particular.
His suppression of Christians would fail – but the general idea – the idea of the emperor imposing his religion of his subjects will be a feature of the late Roman empire –
Only Christian emperors will be the ones imposing.
305 CE: Diocletian retired (and forced his coemperor Maximianus to do so as well)
Their caesars Constantius Chlorus and Galerius succeeded as the new augusti
they were forced (by Diocletian) to choose as caesars men who were not their sons (part of succession policy)
These caesars were supposed to become augusti when Constantius and Galerius died or retired.
II. CONSTANTINE
But things didn’t go as planned.
Constantius had a son – Constantine, born in Moesia (Balkans) as eldest son of Constantius Chlorus and Helena (a Christian)
Started career in army under Diocletian 296 in Egypt; then against Persians
When Constantius died at York in 306, the troops proclaimed his son Constantine augustus; son of Diocletian’s coemperor (Maximian) then also had himself proclaimed augusuts.
Civil war began: For a couple of years Roman empire had multiple emperors again (six at once - Galerius, Licinius, Maximin in east; Maximian, Maxentius his son, and Constantine in west)
B. Constantine's victory at Milvian bridge and
legalization of Christianity
Constantine was not a particularly nice person: he killed his son, drowned a wife, led more than one civil war in order to take over the empire.
He executed his eldest son Crispus (326) for treason
And shortly afterwards his own second wife Fausta on a similar charge.
But he was the one who made Roman Empire Christian
Constantine didn't convert for what we today would consider good reasons.
Before a famous battle – the battle of Milvian Bridge, 312, –where he defeated his rival Maxentius, Constantine had a vision.
The vision told him to make his soldiers put the sign of Christ (Chi-Rho) on their shields.
"in this sign you will conquer"
Constantine won the battle (and chopped off Maxentius’ head to send it as a gift to North Africans in Carthage, who had particularly loathed him)
Legalization of Christianity
In 313, the edict of Milan (issued conjointly with Licinius) gave civil rights and toleration to Christians throughout the empire
Constantine didn't persecute non-Christians - later Roman emperors would do this
But he made Christianity the favored religion.
by giving the churches money, and overseeing the conferences of bishops – the ecumenical councils – in order to decide what was orthodox theology.
Why did Constantine convert?
- Christian God did better job giving military victory than other gods.
- Monotheism appealing in era when emperors becoming absolute
Augustus was fine with image of first among equals - Jupiter chief god among other gods (senators).
But now just as Roman empire had one lord (dominus), the universe should have one lord (Dominus)
- Fear of God seemed good way to get people to respect laws
Christianity had previously been anti-establishment –
After all, Jesus had been a non-citizen Aramaic speaking Jew, executed in a humiliating way – crucifixion.
many early converts were women, slaves, or foreign non-citizen residents in Rome (as in Pliny).
One reasons Christianity began to seem more acceptable to emperors was because of a new type of Christian apologist - those who argued that Christianity would promote traditional Roman values and the rule of law.
Lactantius, one of Constantine's close advisors, argued this:
Pagan myths had promoted immorality, anarchy.
fear of God will do much better job than fear of emperor of making people obey laws, control their private morality, pay their debts
CONSTANTINE'S ACTS AS EMPEROR
So after 312, Constantine was now emperor of the west; (Licinius in East)
In 323, he defeated Licinius, and put him to death, Constantine was now sole ruler of the whole Roman world.
Many of his policies display a conservative trend, like Diocletian’s (indeed it is often difficult to determine what was his reform versus Diocletian’s).
Restored senators to top positions of influence
Trend of 3rd century (ever since the Severans) had been to promote military men, even from lower classes.
Now highest positions reserved again for senators: governorships; praetorian prefecture
Senators are now class, rather than political assembly; around 2500 men inherit status by birth (emperors can also promote someone to status).
Sharply decreased grants of municipal rights and autonomy
of cities
. Few little towns like Esbus get right of self-government after Constantine
Moreover, self-government of recognized cities increasingly interfered with (Constantine appoints officials called curators to oversee city governments; previously cities could elect their officials)
Made imperial
court increasingly ceremonial (this started by Diocletian)
aura of sacredness around emperor
eunuchs (Persian custom) as personal attendants (idea is that emasculated men could have no chance of becoming emperors themselves)
Founded new capital for Eastern Empire
He chose the ancient Greek city of Byzantium for his capital
324 moved court there; in 330 inaugurated it under the name Constantinople.
Chosen for its location:
Important center of trade on strait between Black Sea and Mediterranean
Equidistant btwn eastern and northern military frontiers (Persians; Danube)
didn't mean to "replace" Rome as the capital of the empire - Rome still served as capital for western empire (thought this would later change)
But did symbolize eastward shift in focal point of Roman Empire.
Christian influence in some of Constantine's legislation
- lifts Octavian Augustus’ penalties on childlessness – for Christians idealized celibacy
-bans gladiator games (though ban doesn't immediately take effect)
- slave families not to be broken up – "who could tolerate that children should be separated from parents, sisters from brothers, and wives from husbands?"
(Romans had not previously thought of liaisons among slaves as marriage)
But many things left out – adultery still defined in old way (only if married woman involved), divorce still legal, child abandonment still legal – just welfare efforts to make people stop doing it.
Also the question whether rescripts were really enforced
III. THE FOURTH-CENTURY RECOVERY
Partly thanks to the stability brought by Diocletian and Constantine's reforms, the Roman Empire recovered in the fourth century.
A. The economic recovery:
Here, imperial centralization helped
to stabilize coinage (in kind taxation; gold solidus of Constantine)
to restore peace and rule of law
For many regions, this was the most prosperous period in ancient history (for some, in their entire history)
Greek East as a whole prospered – esp. Asia Minor, Greece, Syria, Palestine, Roman Arabia
Southern Mediterranean also - Egypt and North Africa.
Ways of judging this both
- archaeological survey
- commodity production – local manufacturing and distribution: instead of having products imported into Italy, provincials were producing fineware and other high quality crafts for local consumption
Regional economic metropoleis: Antioch, Alexandria, Carthage become economic dynamos, the focus of trade routes with large populations (hundreds of thousands)
However, those places that had depended on direct imperial investment for prosperity went under
Above all, Europe: Spain, Gaul, Italy, never recovered from 3rd century crisis
Why?
partly because imperial gov. diverting fewer resources from east and south to support Europe
B. Cultural creativity
For no period of Roman history do you have as many texts of every description – imperial legislation, histories like Ammianus Marcellinus, treatises (Vegetius), letter collections, papyri, and so on, but above all the late Roman empire an age of Christian literature – whether theological treatises like Augustine of Hippo, or popular saints lives and sermons.
And not just in Latin and Greek – Coptic, Syriac, Ethiopic, Armenian, Georgian become written languages in this period, largely thanks to the influence of Christianity
Two big trends:
- culture escaping the control of the imperial elite (trend begins in 3rd century)
In age of Augustus, poets like Virgil and artists like wall painters at Pompeii all created their art with idea to Rome and the tastes of the princeps
Not any more
- Similar divergence between Greek East/North Africa and Europe as with economy
Europe in decline intellectually
C. CHANGES IN ARMY
Increase in size of mobile forces attached to
imperial courts (comitatus)
made it easier to mobilize army to meet any invasions
elite troops – scholae palatinae (mostly cavalry) – to replace praetorian guards
Significant trend in these mobile forces is increasing use of cavalry (though infantry still dominant)
As part of separation of civilian and military commands, two new supreme commanders – magister peditum (master of the infantry) and magister equitum (master of cavalry)
more barbarians
DISCUSSION OF VEGETIUS