A. Historical context of the Renaissance

(FINISHING UP HUNDRED YEARS’ WAR

Joan of Arc

It was at this point that a very unlikely hero arose in France – a teenage girl Joan of Arc.

Joan of Ark had been born to a peasant family - free farmers not serfs.

At the age of 13, this illiterate shepherdess started to hear the voices, preceded by a great light.

She claimed they were the voices of Saints Margaret and Catherine, queens of France, and Archangel Michael.

They convinced her to swear to remain a virgin."

When Joan was about 17, the voices told her to leave her village without her father's knowledge and rescue Orléans from the English

She cut her hair off, dressed in armor, and went to Charles, the son of the last French king, and told him she had been sent to save Orleans

He was skeptical, but the French were desperate.

In 1430, Charles let Joan lead the French troops.

            She made soldiers stop visiting prostitutes - and stop swearing.

She rescued Orleans from the English, and stopped the English advance.

Joan convinced Charles to venture into enemy territory and get crowned king at Reims (kings of France had to be crowned at Reims)

But after her initial victories, Joan began to lose skirmishes.

In 1431,she was captured by the English.

Trial of Joan for witchcraft and heresy by the English

The English wanted to prove that Joan had led the French to victory with the help of the Devil, not God.

They handed her over to inquisitors to be tried as a false prophet and a witch.

In the Kishlansky readings this week, you’ll read what sort of interrogation Joan went through.

The Inquisitors above all wanted to make the witch confess to her (and it was usually her) sins – so that she could be reconciled with God before being burned.

We still possess the court records from Joan’s trial – for the inquisitors kept excellent records.

They accused her of hearing voices from the devil (not angels)

Dozens of witnesses were called but none would accuse her.

For 10 weeks, the inquisitors questioned her, to get her to confess.

She did give in briefly - but then retracted her confession.

The English finally burned her as "Relapsed, heretic, apostate, idolater,"

French win war

After Joan's execution, the French slowly began to regain France.

Two things go right for French after Joan inspired them to get back together again:

Burgundy went back over to the French side and by 1437 the French figure out how to use gunpowder effectively :

Gunpowder (combinatin of sulfur, potassium nitrate and carbon) had been invented by the Chinese - originally for use in fireworks

            Chinese had used it as military weapon against Mongols (shooting projectiles through bamboo) -

Europeans would be responsible for turning it into more deadly weapon.

During the Hundred Year's war - gunpoweder only used for cannons (guns not invented yet)

            And these cannons not very effective yet.

Still, Europeans' willingness to innovate to win - and to win at any cost - was demonstrated in this long war.

In 1450 French successfully employed two cannons against English longbowmen (battle of Formigny).

English finally driven out of all of France (except port Calais) by 1453.

Soon afterward, the French church declared that Joan's conviction as a heretic had been invalid.

What is important about the Hundred Years War?

1.New military techniques –

This was a war unlike what Europe had seen previously – both sides used scorched-earth tactics – destroying and pillaging civilians more than usual.

New armies: instead of just the levy of feudal knights, kings were recruiting foot soldiers and archers from commoners.

New technology: long bow of the English, and by the early 15^th century, gunpowder.

By the end of Hundred Years War, European warfare was moving quickly towards its early modern form – armies of both infantry and cavalry, using artillery (cannons) as well as swords.

The medieval knights were becoming obsolete

2. Rise of national consciousness in both France and England – a clear distinction of what it meant to be French versus English, and a sense of the boundaries of these kingdoms.

The French refused to accept an English king as their king - no matter whether his claim was legitimate or not.

Joan Arc of symbolized the new patriotism:

- she, a mere peasant, had a burning wish to restore France’s rightful king and expel the English.

3. State usurping church’s authority over religious persecution

Joan’s trial is also an early example of state (in this case, English king) trying to assert control over religion for its own purpose

In Joan’s case, still employ church courts.

In next couple of centuries, will start trying heretics and witches in secular courts (which will kill a lot more people)

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RENAISSANCE

This period of plague and warfare in late 14^th and 15^th century - also witnessed beginnings of the Renaissance -

 a term used for intellectual and artistic change in Europe from late 14^th to 16^th centuries (“not so much period as program” – Barbara Rosenwein )

What does "Renaissance" mean

            “Rebirth”

             of classical learning specifically: classical texts (like Virgil, Cicero) became required reading for anyone who considered themselves literate.

            but extended to mean rebirth of civilization in general: promoted of mimicry of classical art, sculpture, architecture

Downgraded past 1000 years as “Middle” Ages

Strong element of secularism in the Renaissance – moving away from seeing religion as the central focus of life and the universe towards seeing man as the center.

A. POLITICAL CONTEXT OF RENAISSANCE: BEGAN IN ITALY 

MAP OF EUROPEA 1500

Why Italy?

France and England were focused on their Hundred Years War.

The bubonic plague - the Black Death – had been striking repeatedly, depopulating Europe by at least a third, raising wages, and ruining the fortunes of the aristocracy.

Byzantine Empire falling apart because of the Ottomans ( and Byzantine Greek intellectuals are fleeing to Europe)

And Italy? What was government of Italy like?

GOVERNMENT OF ITALY

Italy was one of most politically disunited parts of Europe – divided into city-states, the Papal states, and the kingdom of Naples (a Norman creation).

(MAP)

In the North, you see the three most important city-states,  Milan, Venice, and Florence.

.

These city-states were in theory communes - governed by their citizens.

but in practice either ruled by princes, or oligarchies (rich merchant aristocracies).

The most important oligarchies were Venice, Florence, and Genoa – great centers of trade.

The oligarchic city-states had constitutions, but the rich merchant families manipulated things so that they controlled the government.

Because of the Renaissance idealization of Rome, these oligarchic city-states called themselves Republics – referring back to the Roman Republic.

But these republics were not like our Republic – they were not democratic.

In the republic of  Florence – a city-state of perhaps 40,000 people – 600  men ruled

260,000 people in state as whole; 38,000 in Florence

These 600 men levied the taxes, killed their enemies, crushed rebellions, and decorated their cities.

Then Medici family took over 1434  - bankers  (ruled without formal political offic e- through inflence ; wars with republicans; then 1530 Florence becomes duchy under Meidici

Why is the Italian city-state government important for our purposes?

Renaissance art and Renaissance political philosophy was born at the courts of these city-states – at the palaces of the great merchant families like the Medici  of Florence.

B. ITALIAN HUMANISM

The people who invented the term "Renaissance" for distinguishing their period from the barbaric Middle Ages - were the Italian humanists.

What was humanism (studia humanitatis)

            Humanists believed you would find lessons for living a moral life in the Greek and Latin classics - Cicero, Virgil, etc.

            This classical wisdom was "humanist" - human - because it did not derive from revealed wisdom of God - but from man's own head.

The most influential early humanist was Petrarch , an Italian who lived (1304-74).

Petrarch was trained as a lawyer and cleric, but ended up instead devoting himself to writing poetry and letters.

He was paid for his learning - various kings of Europe and the Pope competed to get him at their courts.

Why was Petrarch important?

             - He invented the notion of the middle ages – the dark period between classical Roman antiquity and the glorious future when civilization will be reborn.

- Studied (and edited) classical texts for wisdom

Spread of humanism

After Petrarch, every princely court in Europe – esp. in Italy  and Germany – tried to attract the new humanist scholars

They revive many of the secular genres which had fallen into disuse during the middle ages –

 the writing of history which focuses on actions of man, not God;

philosophical dialogues like Plato’s which question long-standing assumptions;

lyric poetry which talk about writer's private emotions

Many of these literary genres which the Greeks had invented – and we still indulge in today – were adopted by Europeans during the Renaissance.

New goals for education of laymen

But humanism affected more than just the scholarly elite; it began to set up new way for men (and we’re talking about mainly men) to be educated.

Remember in 14^th century - university education was still enjoyed primarily by men intending to serve the church.

Ordinary merchants or knights did not study the Latin classics.

The humanists thought that education in the classics was necessary for a fruitful life -  Active life – vita activa –

This active life involved getting an education - reading of the classics – in order to be cultivated.

We still retain many of these humanist values: the idea that making you study history, literature, art, and sciences.

Active life wasn't just learning the classics - it was being a good family man and a good citizen.

You will read about the importance of having a family in Kishlansky, Leon Battista Alberti, an Italian humanist, wrote a treatise on the family.

His goal was to promote marriage – devotion to family, wealth, and letters.

The family aspect of the Humanist Active Life was very un-medieval:

       Remember most of the educated men of Middle Ages - had been celibate  (though some like Abelard against their will)

The humanist Active Life also differed a lot from chivalric values.

Being great in battle was not very important to the humanists

        (remember with the new gunpowder, knights were beginning to be splattered by cannons)

IMPLICATIONS FOR WOMEN

–decrease in female monasticism

Fewer opportunities for women to be spiritual / intellectual equals of men:

            Monastic life had offered women this

            In vita activa, women firmly subordinate

•Women’s role increasingly limited to home

•New male interference in “female” sphere (household, cooking, child rearing)

– example of Alberti

•New emphasis on fertility  (example of painting)

C. RENAISSANCE POLITICS

In political theory, as well as in literature, Renaissance thinkers looked towards classical models, and then improved on them.

Last time we talked about political philosophy was during classical antiquity.

The Greeks used to argue about which constitution – democracy, aristocracy, monarchy –  produced the most stable state.

Philosophers like Plato developed ideal states – utopias.

During the Middle Ages, many classical political ideas had disappeared.

            A medieval king was not judged by how effectively he ruled, but  how well he pleased God.

            Medieval didn't have idea of a common citizenship - a citizenship shared by everyone in the state.

Instead there were various orders (knights, clergy, peasants, eventually townsmen) each with their own inherited privileges.

            And government wasn't supposed to change in the Middle Ages -  traditional customs should be preserved.

Renaissance political theory is more like classical.

            The goal of the ruler should not be to please God - but to rule effectively.

            Citizens had certain rights

Political innovation  - even violent revolution - could be justifiable.

One of the most famous political theorists of the Italian Renaissance was Niccolo Machiavelli

MACHIAVELLI  1469-1527,

He like so many other Renaissance artists and thinkers was  born in Florence

He entered government service for the Republic of Florence.

            (the fact that these city-states in Italy were calling themselves Republics is one sign of revival of Roman customs)

Then the Medici – an extraordinarily wealthy family of bankers – took over Florence IN 1512.

The Medici threw Machiavelli in jail, and eventually exiled him.

Machiavelli began to study Roman history and soon began to write The Prince, dedicated to one of the Medici..

The subject of the Prince is political power – how ruler should gain, maintain, and increase it.

He advises rulers to be militarily strong through citizen armies.

 A ruler not to be too good “a prince who wants to keep his post must learn how not to be good”

Too much goodness can be weakness.

Princes should only cultivate virtues like humanity, generosity, if they help them keep control

Its better to be feared than loved.

This is because men are fundamentally evil – ungrateful, lying, greedy – and will only obey if they are afraid, and take advantage of too good princes.

However, Machiavelli’s was not telling princes to be tyrants.

A prince who is hated will have trouble ruling.

So a ruler should protect citizen’s property  through laws, and not tax them to death.

What is new about Machiavelli’s Prince?

Making power the goal of rulers.

In the Prince, Machiavelli doesn’t care about pleasing God, or being just, or ruling for the good of the people; just about  how effective ruler is at keeping control.

Religion was only important in that rulers could use it – could manipulate it – in order to control subjects.

Religion helped unite subjects.

This is all very un-medieval (but rather Greek)

During the Middle Ages, rulers were supposed to please God – and make their subjects please God.

Machiavelli was not in fact as cynical as he seems in the Prince.

Remember the context in which he is writing – he’s writing to those very Medicis who imprisoned and tortured him, and threw him out of his city.

In a later work - the Discourses – Machiavelli gave a less cynical description of politics, using Rome as his example.

A healthy government was only maintained by active participation of all citizens in the state; on the other side, a strong ruler was needed to keep the people civilized. (“Men act rightly only when compelled.  The law makes men good.”)
His ideal state was the Roman Republic   - the Republic balanced the participation of citizens (including participation in the military)  and strong leadership (but not dictatorship).

 It was the Discourses  rather than the Prince which had the most immediate impact on European political thought.

in his Prince and Discourses, constructed a realistic science of human nature aiming at the reform of Italian society and the creation of a secure civil life.

Machiavelli's republican principles informed by a pragmatic view of power politics and the necessity of violent change

The point is that Europeans were applying their inventiveness to their governmental structures and the shape of their societies as well as to their literature.

They were open to change -  and openness to change is a very very rare thing in world history.

D. RENAISSANCE ART

The best known expression of the Renaissance was its art.

Just as Petrarch used Roman literature to find new ways of writing, Italian painters and sculptures copied classical art and then went beyond it.

- What had changed artistically during the Middle Ages

During the Middle Ages, painting and sculpture were not naturalistic - they didn't show things as they really looked - but as they wanted them to be.

Greeks and Romans had portrayed things more naturalistically  – they showed people's muscles (or lack thereof), facial expression, wrinkles, and other details which made statues and portraits look real.

Renaissance artists would revive naturalistic representation.

- Beginnings of Renaissance Art:

In the 15^th century, Italian artists began to visit Roman ruins and study the art and architecture.

Humanist artists from the  republic of Florence led the way (in particular Botticelli)

The three main types of art were painting, sculpture, and architecture, the same artists often engaging in all three (multiplication of pursuits is essence of being the “Renaissance man”)

In sculpture, these Florentines in the 1400’s emphasized naturalism, beauty of human body – esp. nude human body.

They used living models so that they could get the anatomy and posture right.

Painters learned how to show three dimensional images on a flat plain.

This is what is called perspective

 that is the linear representation of distance and space on a flat surface (repeat)

(CONTRAST MEDIEVAL IMAGE AND RENAISSANCE)

On the architecture side, Renaissance architects revived some of the classical architectural forms – like the rounded arch – and then went beyond them.

 (Remember the rounded arch – or vault – had been one Romans inventions, which medieval Europeans had lost ability to execute, using pointed arch instead).

As for the subject matter, most Renaissance artists stuck to religious themes - just like medieval artists.

One significant innovation was  individual portraiture

So by the middle of the 15^th century, the main feature of Italian Renaissance art are in place: 

naturalistic representation of human form

Reacquisition of difficult techniques like use of perspective in painting, and vaults in architecture

By the early 16^th century, Italian Renaissance art reached its peak.

There were four great masters whose works still have honored place in museums today - :  Leonardo, Raphael, Michelangelo, and Titian.  (REPEAT)

I’m only going to talk about Leonardo da Vinci, a Florentine like Machiavelli.

- Leonardo da Vinci ( 1452 -  1519)

Leonardo was the epitome of a “Renaissance man,” someone who dabbled in many different sorts of art and learning.
Leonardo came from an insignificant background:   he was the illegitimate son of a local lawyer in the small town subject to Florence.

His father acknowledged him and paid for his training.

He had many gifts  – a great singer, magnificent physique, excellent math skills and scientific inventiveness, and above all, talent at painting.

Naturalism in Leonardo's art

Leonardo closely observed the objects he painted – whether human anatomy or fortifications.

One of the most famous portaits was the Mona Lisa – not only famous for her expression (hint of a smile), but also the background – bizarre geological formation.

Contemporaries struck by realism of portrait – fineness of lashes, eyebrows.

The subtle display of emotion in the Mona Lisa – the secret smile  – was another artistic novelty of the Renaissance.

Inventions

In addition to an artists, Leonardo was an inventor.

He tried to invent new levers to move mountains; new sort of pumps;

 most of his ideas were never put into practice.

But his efforts bring us to the last area of Renaissance innovation - new technology (which we will talk more about next week).

Three common themes to literary, political and artistic changes I've talked about today:

            1. Revival of classical learning and art

            2. Focus on man instead of God

3. Positive attitudes towards innovation