April 11: Third-century Crisis
Discussion of group project:
anything in promotion of municipia, or in behavior of imperial court that might lead to crisis?
3rd century turning point in Roman history.
Older historians saw it as dividing line between the Principate and Dominate - the early Roman empire and the late.
Emperors under the Principate acted as leaders - commanders in chief – prince of the senate – but not as autocrats.
Other groups still shared in their rule – senators, equestrians, at the provincial level – the cities
But after the 3rd century, the Roman Empire would be much more administratively centralized – more autocratic – at every level of society.
On the other hand, Italy lost its special place as the center of the empire; the provinces had achieved equal standing.
Why did this change come about?
Because of the 3rd century crisis – the period from 235 to 282.
I. LATER SEVERANS
After Septimius Severus, series of weak emperors (as usually happened when sons inherited)
Caracalla (211 – 217 CE)
Was a fairly good general, and (with the help of Julia Domna), a good administrator.
But he had a cruel streak
First of all, killed his brother Geta (murdered him in Julia Domna’s arms, so they said); then Papinian and other supporters of Geta were also killed)
His most important act was EDICT OF CARACALLA IN 212
extended universal Roman citizenship (to all free subjects of Roman Empire )
various arguments on motive and effect:
Tax purpose?
To systematize what was already taking place?
Astonishing in context of ancient history, however, to grant near universal citizenship to conquered peoples; no precedent for it.
There was very little distinction from this point on between Italy and the provinces.
Practical effect, however, limited by formal recognition (under Septimius) of legal differences of humiliores and honestiores - humble citizens and respectable citizens (decurions and above)
laws set up separate punishments for the two classes: for same crime, death or hard labor in the mines for humiliores, vs. property confiscation and exile for honestiores
humiliores had no right of appeal to the emperor in criminal cases; honestiores did.
humiliores could be tortured to give judicial testimony (as slaves and non-citizens were before)
This was change from first century – when any Roman citizen had right of appeal and excemption from torture.
After only 6 years of rule, Caracalla was stabbed to death by his praetorian prefect, when worshippng at temple of the Moon at Carrhae (Persian campaign)
His praetorian prefect, Macrinus, became emperor (217-18)
But then the Syrian women staged a return of the Severan dynasty
Elagabalus (Varius Avitus) as great-nephew of Julia Domna: son of Soaemias – Julia Domna’s niece (daughter of her sister Julia Maesa); the rumor was that he was natural son of Caracalla.
He was only 14 years old when proclaimed emperor.
He let his grandmother (Julia Maesa) do a lot of the ruling, while he devoted himself to his priestly activities and sexual indulgence.
Elagabalus was very devoted to his namesake – the god Elagabalus - and tried to make him the supreme deity of the Romans
sun god was worshipped in the form of a great, black meteorite and two colossal phalli flanked the entrance of the temple in Emesa; he introduced the cult to Rome, building a temple for the meteorite on the Palatine
Because the devotee of a god should only marry the devotee of another god, he captured and raped Aquilia Severa, a chaste Vestal Virgin.
Elagabalus married her, expressing a hope for 'god-like children'.
His lifestyle caused even more than usual offense: he dressed like a woman; he had male as well as female lovers; he made a professional dancer praetorian prefect.
Finally, seized by praetorian guards, decapitated, and dragged through streets of Rome, until his corpse was thrown into the Tiber.
Replaced by Severus Alexander, another grandson of Julia Maesa (Domna’s sister) (222-235)
Only 14 years old.
Nicer person than Elagabalus, but a weak emperor.
His mother Mamaea was the one who ruled.
They had very good relations with the Senate, whose power they promoted, but not with the army.
The army of the last Severan emperor (Severus Alexander), deposed him because of discontent over his eastern campaign and replaced him with the military man Maximinus.
In 238, a group of young nobles (decurions of Carthage) decided to assassinate an imperial tax collector and proclaim the governor of Africa emperor – this governor became emperor Gordian I (killed soon afterwards by army of Africa).
To sum up Severan period:
period when military and provinces increasingly favored: military pay increases and soldiers allowed to marry; municipal rights extended as never before; universal citizenship granted
even imperial family becomes provincial
power of Senate and Italy in general go into permanent decline
Civil wars:
Between Philip (244- ) and Aurelian (270), 30 emperors were proclaimed in 24 years, and almost all died violent deaths.
There was usually more than two or more rival emperors at a time – based in separate regions of the empire.
Almost all of these emperors were military men – most of provincial, and sometimes humble origin (with names such as Philip the Arab).
Most were assassinated by their own officers, who then tried to take over .
Foreign invasions:
In this context of civil war, foreigners on the borders of the Roman Empire started to defeat Roman legions.
The emperor Decius lost his army and life to the Goths ( 251), and Valerian died in captivity to the Persians in 260. (INSCRIPTION)
For a government that legitimized itself as the bearer of victory and peace, these disasters were hard to recover from.
At this point, something very strange happened in the East.
The city-state of Palmyra in Syria took over the eastern empire from 262 to 272, while north-western Europe, Gaul and Britain, formed their own imperial state (260-274).
This city-state Palmyra had been part of the Roman empire for centuries, but had retained its own written Iranian dialect (in addition to Greek) and ruling dynasty.
Palmyrene soldiers served as auxiliary units of the Roman military (best known at Dura-Europos)
The city Palmyra itself showed similar assimilation into the Roman system combined with its own customs.
It obtained the status of colonia in the Severan period.
In the mid-3rd century, the Persians reconquered Dura-Europos, invaded the eastern Roman empire, and captured the emperor Valerian.
The new emperor Gallienus gave the king of Palmrya - the general Odenathus - command over part of the eastern Roman legions in addition to his own troops.
Odenathus defeated the Persians and various Roman usurpers without trying to take the imperial title himself.
His wife Zenobia was less cautious.
After Odenathus' death, she took the title Augusta and governed for her son.
Zenobia had control of Syria, Palestine, Roman Arabia, and parts of Egypt and Asia Minor.
Even Alexandria minted coins in the name of her son.
Palmyra would not have been incapable of forming this regional empire without the acquiescence of numerous military units, cities, and other provincial groups.
Cities indicated their loyalty in coins – naming Zenobia’s son as Augustus.
The Christians of Antioch had the Zenobia Augusta settle a disputed election of their bishop.
Even after Zenobia's defeat by the emperor Aurelian, Palmyra rebelled again.
We shouldn't see Palmyra's rule as a nationalist movement.
Odenathus and Zenobia used Roman titles, commanded Roman legions, and successfully defended the eastern Roman empire from a foreign enemy.
But their Roman empire was centered on Palmyra, not Rome.
III. CAUSES OF CRISIS
Why this crisis occurred.
Group project dramatized some of the changes in provinces which helped provoke a crisis.
Today I will focus on 1) the military threat and Roman response to it; and 2) provincialization.
A. WAR ON MULTIPLE FRONTS
1. Augustan system not designed for
The Roman empire's perennial problem was how to keep a governor with a large army from seizing the throne, because emperors were created by proclamation of an army
Augustus had attempted to solve the problem by confining most of the legions to imperial provinces whose governors and finances were directly in his control.
The governors had short terms; their officers (tribunes) were appointed by the emperor separately; and depended on the emperor for their salary and supplies.
Their campaigns were usually limited to small-scale border raids, while the emperors themselves or their families carried out the major wars
On the whole, Augustus' system worked. Except for the civil wars of 68-9 CE, the empire enjoyed internal peace for over two centuries.
2. In late 2nd century, wars on multiple fronts began again because of changes in central Asia.
Chinese Empire (Han dynasty) fall apart
People of central Asia begin to move, whether because climate changes, or weakening of Chinese state (which collapses in early third century), or some other reason.
They press on Persians and Germanic tribes of steppes / e. Europe
Germanic groups like the Goths were invading almost every year in the middle of the third century – esp. the Balkans.
Goths – originally from steppes of eastern Europe/ central Asia – were engaged in a migration (Volkerwanderung – or wandering of peoples), which would eventually spell the end of the western Roman emprie.
Why were these enemies more
successful than the barbarians of previous centuries?
The Persians and some of the Germanic barbarians had a few military advantages – better with cavalry warfare than the Romans
The Romans admitted this, and in fact used Moors, Parthians, and other "barbarians" as their elite cavalry in the 3rd century.
Two third-century emperors - Gallienus and Aurelian created mobile armies with large components of elite cavalry units, and by the end of the 3rd century the commander of the imperial cavalry was one of the most powerful men in the empire.
However, it is likely that the Romans had not been torn by 50 years of civil wars, they could have defeated the foreign invaders.
B. PROVINCIALIZATION
But not just the armies and foreigners were involved in the military crisis of the 3rd century.
Provinces and individual cities were also proclaiming new emperors – even in regions like North Africa that were facing no barbarian invaders.
The third century crisis was next logical stage of a process we have talked about quite a bit - the entry of provincials into Roman public life.
Provincials had been gradually entering public life from the late Republic.
Southern Gaul and Spain began to produce senators in the 1st century AD.
By the 2nd century, Africans and Greeks had entered the fold, and even the emperors were now provincials.
Thousands of provincial towns had achieved status of self-governing community.
The constitution of Caracalla in 212 finally seemed to eliminate the differences between provincial and Roman.
This constitution made all free male inhabitants of empire citizens.
Why should this fundamentally positive trend be linked to the instability of the 3rd century?
Because now people in Africa, Gaul, Syria, and so long, knew that they possessed the rights of citizens – but they weren’t able to enjoy these rights.
I’m not talking about the lower classes here.
The problem was that powerful people of powerful cities – these rich young decurions of Africa – wanted emperors more favorable to their regional interests.
These provincial elite were citizens now, they had links to the governor of their provinces, and to the troops stationed there.
Resentment on part of the provincial elite was exacerbated by the fact that Italy was still treated as the center of the Roman empire.
Rich provincials had to invest in Italian land if they became senators, emperors still considered Rome their capital, Italians enjoyed special privileges – such as exemption from the land tax.
Impact of third-century
crisis:
Economic recession
These political disasters affected the economy and society.
the coinage was debased from around 75% to 2% silver between 211 and 270, and the emperor's face and name clearly showed who was responsible.
Debasement occurred because emperors didn’t have enough silver to pay off their troops; increased amount of base metal (esp. bronze) but kept face value the same.
Romans weren’t fooled; extreme inflation occurred (as Ward summarizes, btwn 267 and 274 , prices increased by 700 percent)
Cities stopped investing in public buildings (except for defensive walls), or putting up inscriptions.
Trade in commodities like fine pottery declined: in modern terms, you would say the Romans suffered a serious recession.
Cultural focus shifts away
from emperors
On the intellectual side, after Cassius Dio (and Herodian), historians stopped writing about emperors – so we even have trouble following what was going on in these years.
However some sorts of writing flourished – many apocalpytic Christian tales about the impending destruction of the world.
This was not the sort of literature likely to make Roman rulers feel optimistic and the Christians were duly persecuted.
Conversion to mystery religions
The 50 years from 230’s to the 280’s were in short a disaster for the Romans.
Only under the "Illyrian" emperors from 268 to 305 (including Diocletian) did the empire begin to recover – but as we will see later in the semester, it was a different sort of empire.
TO SUM UP reasons for third-century crisis:
The provinces (and neighbors) of the empire had been assimilated to such an extent that they posed a threat to its unity.
Peoples from outside the Roman empire had served in its army and learned its techniques from at least the 2nd century.
The provinces had prospered economically and had become literate in the techniques of government. Italians had lost their economic and social dominance.
What this meant was that by the 3rd century provincial governors could use a regional power base to seize the throne without even traveling to Italy.
Previous Roman rule could perhaps be termed imperialist - Romans ruling subject peoples.
Provincials entered the ruling elite and even became emperors - but they had to buy Italian land and enter the Roman Senate to do so.
Emperors had long been made outside of Rome, but could they rule outside of Rome?
The 3rd century crisis ended with Diocletian establishing the tetrachy - four emperors each with his own regional base.