FALL 2000
Introduction
to Islamic History
HISTORY 312-069
MWF, 1:30-2:20, DU-120
HISTORY 312-607
M, 6:00-8:30, LT-507
Zouhair Ghazzal
http://www.luc.edu/depts/history/ghazzal/ghazzal.htm
Crown 545, MW, 2:30-3:00
LT-926, M, 5:00-6:00
(or by appointment)
(773) 508-2221
This
course, a “survey” of Islamic societies from the Islamic conquests
in the first half of the seventh century until the fall of Constantinople in
the hands of the Ottomans Turks in 1453, is the first in a series that the
History Department offers as part of its advanced undergraduate curriculum. A
second course, History 313, focuses on the modern Middle East, starting with
the Ottoman Empire and its “decline.” Additional courses shall be
offered on special topics such as gender, sexuality, and kinship; Middle
Eastern cities; Judicial systems in Islamic and Arab societies; contemporary
literature, and in particular the status of the novel in the Arab world today;
and the Arab-Israeli conflict and the rise of the Zionist nation-state, in
addition to other topics that the students might suggest during the class
discussions of the two survey courses (History 312 & 313).
For
this course, we shall focus, after a brief survey of pre-Islamic Arabia, at the
main social forces that made up Islam possible in the Arabian Peninsula. We
shall then discuss the Islamic “conquests,” futûhât, their rapid and
overwhelming “successes,” and their attempts at integrating
populations with different religious, linguistic, and ethnic structures. The
outcome shall be the creation of large empires, in the line of other defunct
pre-Islamic empires such as the Roman, Byzantine, and Sassanian, but with new
elements brought to their bureaucratic, economic, and social structures. We
shall focus on two such empire-experiences, the Umayyâd and ‘Abbâsid
in particular (the rise of the Ottoman dynasty shall be touched upon very
briefly in preparation for the modern Middle East course). The bulk of our
material belongs to the social history genre, both descriptive and analytical,
beginning with the life of the Prophet Muhammad, the social and political
history of the Islamic empires, in addition to the main cultural and
intellectual trends such as philosophy, theology, jurisprudence, and sufism.
Islam
as a religious “message” came into being in the Arabian Peninsula
in the middle of the seventh century, in a region located between two powerful
empires, the Sassanian and Byzantine, and whose social structures were, and
remained for a long time, “tribal,” i.e. based on family and
kinship affiliations and loyalties. In the Islamic view of the world, the one
based on the Qur’ân and the Hadîth, the sayings and doings
of the Prophet Muhammad (both sources are considered as the scriptures of
Islam), the Prophet (ca. 570-632) was only a “medium” through which
God “revealed” his “message” to humanity. Thus the act
of “revelation,” wahî, is considered central to the ancient and
modern Islamic mythologies. The opening verses (ayât) of chapters (sûra-s) 96 and 74 of the
Qur’ân are generally recognized as the oldest revelations;
Muhammad’s vision is mentioned in 53:1-18 and 81:19-25, and the night of
the first revelation in 97:1-5 and 44:3. At first in private and then publicly,
Muhammad began to proclaim his message: that there is but one God and that
Muhammad is His messenger, rasûl. Thus right from the beginning,
Muhammad’s message was “religious,” in the sense that it
challenged the beliefs of a pagan society that worshipped a multitude of Gods.
Of course, Muhammad’s monotheism had nothing unique since it was preceded
by the Judeo-Christian traditions—and the Qur’ân is full of
references to both beliefs—the Qur’ân introduced, however, a
new way of worshipping God, in addition to a concept of “sin” so
radically different from previous monotheistic (and pagan) religions, that a
new concept of man-God relationship has emerged.
But
the main impact of Islam, however, was social and political, involving such
crucial things as the umma as a political entity; strict rules of
inheritance between the sexes, members of the same family and clan, and between
generations; a list of “duties,” known as the “five
pillars” that involve the duty of pilgrimage, fasting, almsgiving,
praying, and the shahâda; etc. It is therefore not surprising to learn
that Muhammad’s “message” was met with a great deal of
resistance in his home town of Mecca (where the Ka‘ba is located) to the
point that the Prophet decided to move to Medina, a city about 250 miles north.
This move, called hijra, emigration, took place in 622, the first year of the Muslim
calendar. (Muslim dates are usually preceded by a.h.,
“Anno Hegirae,” the year of the hijra.) From Medina, it took the
Prophet ten years, since the hijra in 622 until his sudden death in 632, to lay
down the foundations of Islam as a religion.
Concerning
this course in particular, let me start by a general remark about the title
itself: “Introduction to Islamic History” might indeed give the
false impression that there is some entity called “Islam” that
needs to be defined and analyzed as such, i.e. as a “totality” or
as a “spirit” that conserved itself over the centuries. By
contrast, in a title such as A History of Islamic Societies, which is borrowed from
the book of Ira Lapidus that was published in 1988, an explicit recognition is
made of a multitude of Islamic experiences that evolved historically; and the
discovery of these diverse experiences in time and space shall be our main
concern throughout this course. Moreover, the process of Islamicization of
societies as diverse as the Byzantine lands of the Fertile Crescent, or the
Zoroastrian societies of the Sassanian Empire, or those of North Africa, has
never been fully completed, meaning that lots of the customary practices that
survive until this day are of non-Islamic origin; not to forget that “Islam”
also means different things in different places. We would therefore speak of
Islamic practices with various historical and regional variations and meanings
rather than Islam in general.
It
is, of course, a rather difficult task to study in a one-semester course all
such experiences even if we end up selecting fragments from the
fourteen-century period of Islamic histories. However, before outlining such
difficulties and the kind of limitations they would impose, let me first remind
you of the “periods” involved in the history of Islamic
societies—period is here taken in a straightforward sense, that of a
historical time dominated by a ruling dynasty, or a “pattern of
government,” etc. (all of which will be challenged in Hodgson’s Venture
of Islam):
1. The prophetic mission and the establishment of the first Islamic communities
in the Arabian Peninsula; 2. The Islamic “conquests,” or more
accurately the “openings,” futûhât; 3. The defeat of the
followers of ‘Alî ibn Abû Tâlib, son-in-law of the
Prophet, which in practice meant the subservience of the Shî‘is by
Sunni dynasties as was the case of the first Islamic empire in history, the
Umayyad, with Damascus as its capital (661-750); 4. Transfer of power from the
Umayyads to the ‘Abbâsids with Baghdâd becoming the new
capital of the empire; 5. With the ‘Abbâsids, Islamic civilization
was at its best—the early ‘Abbâsid period, 750-833: known as
the “classical” period of Islam, it witnessed progress and
breakthroughs in philosophy, theology, soufism, and jurisprudence (and some of
the “sciences” as well); 6. The dismantlement of the
‘Abbâsid empire into rival entities (833-945), a period
particularly notorious for the power of the mamâlîk who were the slave born
soldiers of the defunct empire and who later ruled in Syria and Egypt; 7. A new
period of “unification” comes into existence with the rise and
empowerment of the Ottomans; 8. The majority of the Arab lands shall live under
Ottoman rule for four centuries, an experience of tremendous consequences on their
modern history; 9. The dismantlement of the Ottoman empire after World War I
and the establishment, until WWII, of the French and British colonial rules;
10. The end of WWII also meant, for the majority of the Arab/Islamic colonies,
the end of colonial rule and the first “national” states—some
like Algeria will establish their independence much later (1956); 11. The
present period is that of the “national” states, dominated in the
majority of cases by state ruled economies and military and/or tribal dictatorships.
There
are several ways to cover a history with such a complexity. I would like to
point out to two in particular. The first possibility would be a kind of broad
political history, not the chronological type, but a Tocquevillian type of
analysis. (I’ve mentioned an author that you’re probably familiar
with, but a more accurate description would be a “Khaldunian” type
of history—from Ibn Khaldûn, the 14th-century Arab historian whose
history we shall discuss in a few weeks.) Such a history would be primarily
concerned with state formations from the point of view of dynastic lineages
that would make them “stable” or “unstable.” In other
words, in order to make our analysis possible, we’ll have to imagine the
political as an “autonomous” sphere with its own rules and logic.
We could thus analyze, say, the ‘Abbâsid empire from the standpoint
of dynasties “coming together” and being subservient to each other:
What was the logic behind this type of rule, and how did it hold together for a
long period of time? What was the political concept behind this type of state
formation? What type of political representation do we have? Why did this type
of society produce this particular policy?
As
you can see, this is very different from the chronological history that
you’re familiar with which presupposes that what comes
“after” is explained by what was there “before”—a
“natural” unfolding of events as history. On the other hand, the
political history we’ll be aiming at is obviously very different. For one
thing, it requires a much more abstract and analytical work.
The
second alternative would be some kind of social history: a study of social
structures and the way they evolve in space and time. The work of Fernand
Braudel on the expansion of European capitalism between the 15th and 18th
centuries is an example of such a history. Time is here considered as
multi-layered with the social structures, in contrast to the political, evolve
very slowly and have a tempo of their own. Social agglomerations like cities, villages
and the like, and institutions like the family and land tenure could be studied
with a Braudelian horizon, i.e. extensively and over a period of several
centuries.
It
is of course difficult, if not impossible, to do all this in a
“survey” course, and our approach shall be necessarily
“eclectic.” For example, there’s a great deal of chronology
in the early Islamic history, the rise of Islam and the
“conquests.” A purely social history would therefore be more than
inappropriate because it would end up in serious difficulties in explaining the
ideological and political tensions, or, in short, what made Islam as a worldly
religion possible. By contrast, the Ottoman empire, with its less than colorful
political and intellectual life would be more apt for a social structure
analysis.
GENERAL
There are weekly
readings that we’ll discuss collectively in class. Your participation is
essential for the success of the course. You might be also occasionally
requested to prepare a presentation on a chapter or book which are part of the
weekly assignments. Presentations should be improvised and 5 to 10 minutes
long. Do not prepare a written presentation. You’re also requested, after
submission of a first-draft, to make a short presentation of your term-paper.
Besides
the two-draft research paper (see below the section on papers), you’re
expected to submit three interpretive essays. The final grade will be
calculated on the basis of one-fifth for each paper draft and one-fifth for
each interpretive essay. All interpretive essays are take-home and
you’ll be given a week to submit them. The purpose of the interpretative
essays is to give you the opportunity to go “beyond” the literal
meaning of the text and adopt interpretive and “textual”
techniques. A failing grade in all interpretive essays means also a failing
grade for the course, whatever your performance in the paper is. All essays
and papers must be submitted on time according to the deadlines set below.
|
First
Interpretive Essay |
20% |
|
Second
Interpretive Essay |
20% |
|
Final
Interpretive Essay |
20% |
|
Preliminary
paper draft |
20% |
|
Term
Paper: In
case the term paper grade is superior to the preliminary draft, it will count
as 40%. |
20% |
READINGS
The
two sets of dates for each week refer to the two history 312 sections:
312-069,
MWF, 1:30-2:20, LSC, 3 dates per week
312-607,
M, 6:00-8:30, WTC
Below
is a very tentative schedule for the semester. The idea is to read
Hodgson’s Venture of Islam in conjunction with a large variety of primary
texts. In Lewis, readings are listed in conjunction with the volume number and
documents numbers.
|
week |
dates |
hodgson |
lewis |
|
I |
8/28,
30, 9/1 8/28 |
volume i Introduction & Prologue |
I:1-7. |
|
II |
9/6,
8, 11 9/11 9/4
labor day |
Introduction
& Prologue |
I:
39-44. |
|
III |
9/13,
15, 18 9/18 |
Book
One (I-III) |
I:
52-54. |
|
IV |
9/20,
22, 25 9/25 |
Book
Two (I-II) First Interpretive Essay |
II:
1-6. |
|
V |
9/27,
29, 10/2 10/2 |
Book
Two (III-IV) |
I:
8-11. |
|
VI |
10/4,
6, 9 10/9 |
Book
Two (V-VI) |
I:
39-51. |
|
VII |
10/11,
13, 18 10/23 10/16
mid-semester break |
Book
Two (VII) |
II:
38-54. |
|
VIII |
10/20,
23, 25 10/30 |
volume ii Book
Three (I-III) First Draft Deadline |
II:
64-70. |
|
IX |
10/27,
30, 11/1 11/6 |
Book
Three (IV-V) |
II:
74-86. |
|
X |
11/3,
6, 8 11/13 |
Book
Three (VI-VII) Second Interpretive Essay |
II:
15-26. |
|
XI |
11/10,
13, 15 11/20 |
Book
Four (I-II) |
I:
22-30. |
|
XII |
11/17,
20, 22 11/27 11/24
thanksgiving |
Book
Four (III-IV) Final Interpretive Essay |
I:
31-38. |
|
XIII |
11/27,
29, 12/1 12/4 |
papers:
presentation and submission of all papers. Your presentation will be graded. |
papers |
|
XIV |
12/4 |
papers deadline for submitting all papers |
papers |
PAPERS
You
are requested to write one major research paper to be submitted during the last
session, Monday, October 30. You will have to submit, however, a first draft of
this paper on Monday, December 4. The first draft should be as complete as
possible and follow the same presentation and writing guidelines as your final
draft, and it will count as 20% of your total grade unless the final draft is
of superior quality. The purpose of the first draft is to let you assess your
research and writing skills and improve the final version of your paper. It is
advisable that you choose a research topic and start preparing a bibliography
as soon as possible. I would strongly recommend that you consult with me before
making any final commitment. It would be preferable to keep the same topic for
both drafts. You will be allowed, however, after prior consultation, to change
your topic if you wish to do so.
You
may choose any topic related to the social, economic, political, or cultural
history of any Islamic society up to the early Ottomans. Even though papers on
the Ottoman Empire might be accepted pending on the subject, no paper should
cover contemporary twentieth-century topics. Papers should be analytical and
conceptual.
Avoid pure narratives and chronologies and construct your paper around a main
thesis.
Kate L. Turabian, A Manual for Writers of
Term Papers, Theses, and Dissertations, 5th ed., Chicago: University of Chicago Press,
1987. Intended for students and other writers of papers not written for
publication. Useful material on notes and bibliographies.
December 4: final draft deadline
submit your final draft with your
preliminary corrected one
Keep
in mind the following when preparing your preliminary and final drafts:
·
once
you’ve decided on a paper-topic and prepared a preliminary bibliography,
send an abstract and bibliography of your topic to the class-list
<h312-l@luc.edu> (see below). Your abstract should include: (i) title;
(ii) description; (iii) sources; (iv) methodology (e.g. suggestions on how to
read sources). Your preliminary draft will not be accepted unless
you’ve submitted an on-line abstract.
·
preliminary
drafts should be submitted on time, October 30.
·
preliminary
drafts should be complete and include footnotes and an annotated
bibliography.
(The Turabian reference above is annotated: it briefly spells what the book is
about and to whom it might be useful.)
·
do
not submit an outline as a first draft.
·
incomplete
and poorly written first drafts will not be accepted, and you’ll be
advised to revise your first draft completely.
·
if
you submit a single draft throughout the semester, you’ll receive F for
20% of the total and your final grade will be averaged accordingly.
·
the
oral presentation is an essential aspect of your grade; if you can’t
attend the last session, request an appointment.
·
your
final draft should take into consideration all the relevant comments provided
on your earlier draft:
·
all
factual and grammatical mistakes should be corrected, in addition to other
stylistic revisions.
·
passages
indicated as “revise” or “unclear” or
“awkward” should be totally revised.
·
when
specific additional references have been suggested, you should do your best to
incorporate them into your material.
·
there
might be several additional suggestions in particular on your overall
assumptions and methodology. It will be up to you to decide what to take into
consideration.
·
Submit
the final draft with your preliminary corrected one.
·
if
you’re interested in comments on your final paper and interpretive essay,
request an appointment by e-mail.
Please
use the following guidelines regarding the format of your papers:
·
use
8x10 white paper (the size and color of this paper). Do not use legal size or
colored paper.
·
use
a typewriter, laser printer or a good inkjet printer and hand in the original.
·
only
type on one side of the paper.
·
should
be double spaced, with single spaced footnotes at the end of each page and an annotated
bibliography
at the end (see bibliography below).
·
keep
ample left and right margins for comments and corrections of at least 1.25
inches each.
·
all
pages should be numbered and stapled.
·
a
cover page should include the following: paper’s title, course number and
section, your name, address, e-mail, and telephone.
E-MAIL
DISCUSSION LIST
An
open e-mail discussion list is available: each message—whether mine or
from any student—will reach anyone else on the list, so that every
subscriber could directly write to the list.
H312-L@luc.edu
The
purpose of this electronic listserv is to discuss issues relevant to both
courses, and current political and social matters as well. The focus, however,
shall be primarily on the readings themselves since they represent our primary
source for dealing with the complexities of these civilizations.
To
join the list, please send an e-mail message to:
listproc@luc.edu
and
include as your e-mail message (leaving the Subject: field blank, if possible):
subscribe
H312-L first-name last-name
e.g.,
Janine Doe—you would type in:
subscribe
H312-L Janine Doe
GroupWise
Users at Loyola University Chicago: Please preface the 'listproc' address (or
subscription address) with 'internet:' in the To: field. For example:
To:
internet:listproc@luc.edu
Once
you’ve successfully subscribed (you’ll receive a confirmation
message with instructions), send all messages to the list’s address:
H312-L@luc.edu
Your
message will be automatically forwarded to all the list’s subscribers.
You should also receive a duplicate of your own message.
To
unsubscribe send an e-mail to listproc@luc.edu with the following message:
unsubscribe
h312-l first-name last-name
Do
not send any mail to my private address <zghazza@luc.edu>, except for
appointments or personal problems regarding the course. Suggestions for
term-papers topics should be posted directly at the class-list.
Problems
in joining the list? Questions? Send an e-mail to Brian Kinne
<bkinne@luc.edu>.
notes from it services:
From:
"Jack Corliss, Loyola University Chicago" <jcorlis@orion.it.luc.edu>
Please
note that about 96% of all registered students have e-mail accounts, on the
GroupWise e-mail system (university e-mail system). We no longer encourage
students to obtain Orion accounts unless they plan to do personal web page
design and development.
Of
course, students can use whatever e-mail account they have to subscribe and
post to the class discussion list including AOL and Entereact. If you want to
send attachments to the students on the list then they should find out their
e-mail system handles attachments.
You
should also know that as of May 1997, anyone using the computer workstations in
any of the University computing centers and public-access labs are required to
have university network access account (which we call the UVID). This is
required whether the student plans to access the Internet resources, their
GroupWise or Orion e-mail, use word-processing to write their papers, whatever.
Therefore,
students are assigned these accounts automatically. However, if a student does
not remember his or her university network access account/password, and
registered late this year, then the student will need to go to the computing
center to have the password reassigned or a network access account set up
(usually takes 24 hours).
WHAT
I HAVE JUST PRESENTED ABOVE IS VERY IMPORTANT INFORMATION. Please be prepared
to direct the student to one of the computing centers if he or she does not
know nor remember the network access account or password.
Please
note that some students may know this network access account as the GroupWise
account and password—an unfortunate nomenclature—but most likely
this is one and the same. Previously, we referred to these as GroupWise
accounts but now we are calling them university IDs (or UVID), or university
network access accounts.
The
computing centers have had to deal with this last semester, so please do not
hesitate to refer any students to the computing centers for assistance, or they
can call the Help Desk at 4-4444 and the Help Desk staff will re-assign a network
access password.
SELECTIVE
BIBLIOGRAPHY
The
following bibliography is highly selective and only restricted to books and
articles which in a way or another are representative of a particular
historical or sociological/anthropological trend. Students are thus encouraged,
when writing their papers, to use more extensive bibliographies related to the
topics they are dealing with. Some of the
books for our weekly discussion sessions include such bibliographies.
(It would better if you discuss with me your papers’ topics before you start writing.)
1.
Islam & The Early Empires—General
The
Qur’ân
is the holy book of the Muslims (in all their different factions and sects)
delivered by God in Arabic to the community of believers (umma) through the
“medium” of the Prophet Muhammad in sessions of
“revelation” (wahî). Thus Arabic is not only the language of
the Qur’ân (and the Sunna), but also a divine language, the
language of God. All translations of the Qur’ân are thus considered
as illegitimate and inaccurate. There are several such
“translations”/“interpretations” available. A classical
one would be that of A.J. Arberry, The Koran Interpreted (Oxford University
Press). For a recent “reading” of the Qur’ân, see
Jacques Berque, Relire le Coran (Paris: Albin Michel, 1993).
R.
Stephen Humphreys, Islamic History. A Framework for Inquiry (Princeton University
Press, 1991), is a long annotated and commented bibliography thematically
organized. Recommended for all those looking at the best in the field for
sources available in English, French and German. Some references to primary
sources, mainly Arabic medieval sources, are also included. The problem with
this “inquiry” is that it excludes from its field of investigation
all publications in modern Arabic, as well as Turkish and Persian. In short,
this book is an excellent tool for a primary survey on the status of the Middle
Eastern Studies field in Europe and North America.
Marshall
G. S. Hodgson, The Venture of Islam, 3 vols. (Chicago University Press, 1974), is a landmark
study on the “origins” of Islam and its historical evolution into
empires. Recommended for those interested in Islam within a comparative
religious and geographical perspective.
Ira
Lapidus, A History of Islamic Societies (Cambridge University Press, 1988), is a
complete fourteen-century history of Islamic societies. Chapters vary in depth
and horizon. No particular focus—Tedious to read.
Bernard
Lewis (ed.), The World of Islam (London: Thames and Hudson, 1976), is a
thematically organized book with chapters on literature, jurisprudence, sufism,
the cities, the Ottoman and modern experiences. Includes hundreds of
illustrations and maps.
Watt,
W. M., Muhammad at Mecca (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1953); Muhammad at Medina (Oxford: Clarendon
Press, 1956), both are classics describing the life of the Prophet and his
first achievements in Mecca and Medina.
Franz
Rozenthal, A History of Muslim Historiography (Leiden: E.J. Brill,
1952); 2d rev. ed., 1968.
Roy
Mottahedeh, Loyalty and Leadership in an Early Islamic Society (Princeton University
Press, 1980), an excellent book, based on primary sources from Southern Iraq
that describe the process and concept of bay‘a in early Islamic
thought.
Hugh
Kennedy, The Early Abbasid Caliphate: A Political History (London: Croom Helm,
1981).
Jacob
Lassner, The Shaping of Abbasid Rule (Princeton University Press, 1980).
Lassner,
Jacob, Islamic Revolution and Historical Memory: An Inquiry into the Art of
‘Abbâsid Apologetics (American Oriental
Series, number 66.) New Haven: American Oriental Society. 1986.
The
History of al-Tabarî (State University of New York Press, 1989), is a
multi-volume series of the translation of the “History” of
Tabarî, one of the major historians and interpreters of the
Qur’ân of the early Islamic and empire periods.
al-Shâfi‘î,
Risâla. Treatise on the Foundations of Islamic Jurisprudence, translated by Majid
Khadduri (Islamic Texts Society, 1987). Shâfi‘î was the
founding father of one of the four major schools of Sunni jurisprudence and the
Risâla
contains some of his major theoretical foundations on the notions analogy, qiyâs, and the ijmâ‘, consensus of the
community.
Martin
Lings, Muhammad. His Life Based on the Earliest Sources (Rochester, 1983).
Newby,
Gordon Darnell, The Making of the Last Prophet: A Reconstruction of the
Earliest Biography of Muhammad (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press,
1989).
Maxime
Rodinson, Muhammad
(Pantheon, 1971), is an interesting interpretation of the early Islamic period
based on a social and economic analysis of the Arabian Peninsula at the dawn of
Islam.
M.
A. Shaban, Islamic History. A New Interpretation, 2 vol. (Cambridge
University Press, 1971), is an attempt towards a new interpretation of the
‘Abbâsid Revolution of the eight century as a movement of
assimilation of Arabs and non-Arabs into an “equal rights” Empire.
Mohammad
Hashim Kamali, Principles of Islamic Jurisprudence (Cambridge, 1991). See
also the great classic of Joseph Schacht, The Origins of Muhammadan
Jurisprudence
(Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1950).
Ignaz
Goldziher, Introduction to Islamic Theology and Law (Princeton University
Press, 1981).
Fred
Donner, The Early Islamic Conquests (Princeton University Press, 1981),
reconstructs the early Islamic Conquests (futûhât) from a wealth of
Arabic chronicles and literary and ethnographic sources.
Bernard
Lewis, The Political Language of Islam (Chicago University Press, 1988),
discusses the notion of “government” and “politics” in
Islamic societies.
Ann
Lambton, Continuity and Change in Medieval Persia. Aspects of
Administrative, Economic and Social History, 11th-14th Century (The Persian Heritage
Foundation, 1988).
Dominique
Urvoy, Ibn Rushd (Averroes) (Routledge, 1991). Henry Corbin, Avicenna
and the Visionary Recital (Princeton University Press, 1960), is an analysis and
interpretation of Hayy ibn Yaqzân.
Salma
Khadra Jayyusi, editor, The Legacy of Muslim Spain (Leiden: Brill, 1993).
See also L. P. Harvey, Islamic Spain, 1250 to 1500 (Chicago University
Press, 1990).
2.
The Ottoman Empire
•
REFERENCE
For
a general social history of The Ottoman Empire, see H.A.R. Gibb and Harold
Bowen, Islamic Society and the West, Volume One, 2 parts (London: Oxford University
Press, 1950-57).
For
a general chronological history of the Ottoman Empire, see Stanford Shaw &
Ezel Shaw, History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey, 2 vols., (Cambridge,
1977). See also M. A. Cook (ed.), A History of the Ottoman Empire to 1730 (Cambridge University
Press, 1976).
Paul
Wittek, The Rise of the Ottoman Empire (London, 1963). A short monograph on the
nature of early Ottoman expansion.
For
a narrative account of the rise of the Ottoman Empire viewed from the
standpoint of historical geography, see Donald Edgar Pitcher, An Historical
Geography of the Ottoman Empire. From earliest times to the end of the
Sixteenth Century with detailed maps to illustrate the expansion of the
Sultanate
(Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1972).
George
Young, Corps de droit ottoman, 7 vol. (Oxford, 1905-6) contains selections from the Ottoman judicial
code.
•
GENERAL HISTORIES
Robert
Mantran (ed.), Histoire de l’Empire ottoman (Paris: Fayard, 1989).
Barbara
Jelavich, The Ottoman Empire (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1973).
Halil
Inalcik, The Ottoman Empire (New York: Praeger Publishers, 1973).
Norman
Itzkowitz, Ottoman Empire and Islamic Tradition (New York: Knopf, 1972)
Peter
Mansfield, The Ottoman Empire and Its Successors (New York: St.
Martin’s Press, 1973).
William
Miller, The Ottoman Empire and Its Successors, 1801-1927 (New York: Octagon
Books, 1966).
Smith
William Cooke, The Ottoman Empire and Its Tributary States (Chicago: Argonot,
1968).
• THE
OTTOMAN EMPIRE IN THE INTER-STATE SYSTEM
Alexander
H. de Groot, The Ottoman Empire and the Dutch Republic (Leiden, 1978).
Leopold
von Ranke, The Ottoman and the Spanish Empires in the Sixteenth and
Seventeenth Centuries
(New York: AMS Press, 1975).
Gustav
Bayerle, Ottoman Diplomacy in Hungary (Bloomington: Indiana University, 1972).
J.
C. Hurewitz, Diplomacy in the Near and Middle East. A Documentary Record, 2 vol. (Princeton,
1956), contains a selection of administrative documents, edicts, and treaties since 1535.
•
WORLD-SYSTEM THEORY
There
has been numerous studies within the last two decades that describe in economic
terms how the Ottoman societies have reacted to what is now known as the
process of “incorporation” of the Ottoman Empire in the
world-economy. Despite their merits, “world-systems” analyses are
weak in understanding and interpreting cultures and social structures. See for
example, Immanuel Wallerstein & Resat Kasaba, “Incorporation into the
World-Economy: Change in the Structure of the Ottoman Empire,1750-1839,”
in J.-L. Bacqué-Grammont & Paul Dumont, eds., Économie et
sociétés dans l'Empire ottoman (Paris: CNRS, 1983), 335-54. Some of the
most recent titles in “world-systems” include the following:
Huri
Islamoglu-Inan, ed., The Ottoman Empire and the World-Economy (New York: Cambridge
University Press, 1988).
Caglar
Keyder, ed., Ottoman Empire: Nineteenth-Century Transformations, in Review, 11(1988).
Caglar
Keyder, State and Class in Turkey: A Study in Capitalist Development (London & New York:
Verso, 1987).
Resat
Kasaba, The Ottoman Empire and the World Economy: The 19th Century (Albany, NY: SUNY
Press, 1988).
Pamuk,
Sevket, The Ottoman Empire and European Capitalism,1820-1913: Trade,
Investment, and Production (Cambridge & New York: Cambridge University Press,
1987).
•
SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC HISTORY
Halil
Inalcik, Studies in Ottoman Social and Economic History (London: Variorum
Reprints, 1985), is a reproduction of a series of articles on the
“beginnings” of the Ottoman Empire, the impact of the Annales school on Ottoman
historiography, etc., by a leading figure in the field of Ottoman studies. See
also by the same author his collected studies under the title The Ottoman
Empire: Conquest, Organization and Economy (London: Variorum Reprints, 1978).
Halil
Inalcik, “Military and Fiscal Transformation of the Ottoman Empire,
1600-1700,” Archivum Ottomanicum, 6(1980), 283-337, reproduced in Inalcik
(1985), discusses the transformation of the Ottoman tax-farming system from the
timâr
to the iltizâm. See also Bruce McGowan, Economic Life in Ottoman Europe.
Taxation, Trade and the Struggle for Land, 1600-1800 (Cambridge University
Press, 1981).
Kemal
H. Karpat, Ottoman Population: Demographic and Social Characteristics (Madison: The
University of Wisconsin Press, 1985). This book attempts, on the basis of
original archive materials, to show the demographic dimension of Middle Eastern
and Balkan societies under Ottoman rule in the 19th century. See the review of
Inalcik in IJMES,
21/3 (1989).
Ömer
Lutfi Barkan, “The Price Revolution of the Sixteenth Century: A Turning
Point in the Economic History of the Near East,” IJMES, 6(1975), 3-28. A
classical article which analyzes the effects of one of the first debasements of
the Ottoman currency in the 16th century.
Uriel
Heyd, Studies in Old Ottoman Criminal Law, ed. by V. L. Ménage (Oxford,
1973) discusses, among others, the relation between the Islamic sharî‘a and the Ottoman qânûn.
Benjamin
Braude & Bernard Lewis (eds.), Christians and Jews in the Ottoman
Empire: The Functioning of a Plural Society. Volume 1, The Central Lands; Volume 2, The
Arabic-Speaking Lands. (New York, 1982), contains a wide range of articles on
“minority” groups in the Ottoman Empire.
On
women in the Ottoman Empire, see Fanny Davis, The Ottoman Lady. A Social
History from 1718 to 1918 (New York: Greenwood Press, 1986).
Ehud
R. Toledano, The Ottoman Slave Trade and Its Suppression (Princeton University
Press, 1982), stresses the key role of the British in the elimination of the
trade in black slaves from Africa and the importance of the Ottoman’s own
actions in abolishing trade in white slaves from the lands around the Black
Sea.
Suraiya
Faroqhi, Towns and Townsmen of Ottoman Anatolia. Trade, Crafts and Food
Production in an Urban Setting, 1520-1650 (Cambridge University Press, 1984).
Charles
Issawi, Economic History of Turkey (Chicago, 1980), is an account, mainly based on
the European consular correspondence of the 19th century, of the Turkish
economy during the period of Western colonialism and imperialism.
Gabriel
Baer, “The Administrative, Economic and Social Functions of Turkish
Guilds,” IJMES, 1(1970), 28-50. Haim Gerber, “Guilds in
Seventeenth-Century Anatolian Bursa,” Asian and African Studies (AAS),
11(1976),
59-86. Orhan Kurmus, “Some Aspects of Handicraft and Industrial
Production in Ottoman Anatolia, 1800-1915,” AAS, 15(1981), 85-101.
Edward C. Clark, “The Ottoman Industrial Revolution,” IJMES, 5(1974), 65-76. Bernard
Lewis, “The Islamic Guilds,” Economic History Review, 8(1937), 20-37.
Jacques
Thobie, Intérêts et impérialisme français dans
l'empire Ottoman
(Paris, 1977) focuses on the effects of French imperialism on the Ottoman
Empire in general and on some Arab Provinces in particular (Syria and Lebanon).
• THE
STATE, IDEOLOGY, & RELIGION
Serif
Mardin, The Genesis of Young Ottoman Thought (Princeton University
Press,1962) studies the effects of Western “liberal” thought on the
Ottoman intelligentsia of the 19th century and the “origins” of the
Tanzimât
reforms of 1839. See also by the same author, “Ideology and Religion in
the Turkish Revolution,” International Journal of Middle East Studies (IJMES), 2(1971), 197-211. See
also R. C. Repp, The Müfti of Istanbul: A Study in the Development of
the Ottoman Learned Hierarchy (London: Ithaca, 1986) and J. R. Barnes, An
Introduction to Religious Foundations in the Ottoman Empire (Leiden: E.J. Brill,1986).
Richard L. Chambers, “The Ottoman Ulema and the Tanzimat” in Nikki
R. Keddie (ed.), Scholars, Saints, and Sufis: muslim Religious Institutions
Since 1500
(Berkeley-Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1972).
Cornell
H. Fleisher, Bureaucrat and Intellectual in the Ottoman Empire: The
Historian Mustafa Ali, 1546-1600 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986).
The Ottoman 16th century through the eyes of the historian Mustafa Ali. See the
critical review article (especially on the much debated issue of
“decline”) by Rhoads Murphey, “Mustafa Ali and the Politics
of Cultural Despair,” IJMES, 21(1989), 243-255; idem, Regional Structure
in the Ottoman Economy (Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1987). A Sultanic memorandum
of 1636 A.D. concerning the sources and uses of the tax-farm revenues of
Anatolia and the coastal and northern portions of Syria.
Cornell
H. Fleisher, “Royal Authority, Dynastic Cyclism, and ‘Ibn
Khaldûnism’ in Sixteenth-Century Ottoman Letters,” Journal
of Asian and African Studies, 18/3-4(1983), 198-220.
Bernard
Lewis, The Emergence of Modern Turkey (Oxford University Press, 1968[1961]) A survey
of the first Turkish pan-movements till the proclamation of the Turkish
Republic and its aftermath. See also Uriel Heyd, Foundations of Turkish
Nationalism
(Westport, Conn.: Hyperion Press, 1979).
Kemal
H. Karpat, “The Transformations of the Ottoman State, 1789-1908,” IJMES, 3(1972), 243-81.
Carter
Findley, Bureaucratic Reform in the Ottoman Empire. The Sublime Porte,
1789-1922
(Princeton University Press, 1980); idem, Ottoman Civil Officialdom. A
Social History
(Princeton University Press, 1989) reassesses Ottoman accomplishments and
failures in turning an archaic scribal corps into an effective civil service.
For
a political anthropology of the Ottoman Empire and the cultural barriers for
its development, see Ilkay Sunar, State and Society in the Politics of
Turkey’s Development (Ankara, 1974).
3.
The Arab Provinces. General.
The work of Charles Issawi gives the best synthesis of the economic development of the Arab