FALL 2002
HISTORY 313
MODERN MIDDLE EAST
HIST 313-039: T, Th:
11:30-12:45—DU-125 (LSC)
HIST 313-612: Th: 6:00-8:30—LT-606
(WTC)
Zouhair Ghazzal
LSC, CC-507, T:
2:00-3:00
WTC, LT-926, Th:
5:00-6:00
(or by appointment)
http://www.luc.edu/depts/history/ghazzal/ghazzal.htm
(312) 915-6524
The
purpose of this course is to study some basic issues related to the cultures,
societies, and politics of the contemporary Middle East and North Africa. The
modern Middle East emerged out of the dismantlement of the Ottoman Empire after
the First World War. The Ottoman Empire was composed of a multitude of social,
ethnic, religious, and linguistic groups, the most important being of course
the Turkish speaking population of Anatolia. Most Arab societies (Morocco is
the only exception) were under Ottoman rule for four centuries. During this
long period, the Ottomans kept these societies “autonomous” in the
sense that there was no forced process of “integration” of the
various groups from the part of the administration and the state. These groups
had their own “representatives” who acted as
“intermediaries” between the local populations and the apparatus of
the state. Thus, in the case of religious “minorities,” millets, (Christians, Armenians,
and Jews, in particular), their local representatives were at the same time
their religious leaders who were also responsible for the collection of all
kinds of “minority” taxes. But the majority of the subjects of the
empire were represented by their local notables (a‘yân) who were for the most
part based in the cities and who claimed to be descendants of the Prophet, ashrâf. Such claims were at
the basis of their legitimate domination and accorded them with tremendous
political and economic power. The notables were indeed mostly urban based
tax-farmers, collecting taxes on state owned lands, mîrî.
The
term “decline” is often associated with the Ottoman Empire.
Historians tend to think that since the end of the 16th century the empire was
unable to modernize itself and adapt to a new Europe whose
“universalistic” culture and values began to manifest a desire for
expansion and hegemony. This has become even more true towards the end of the
18th century, at the age of Enlightenment, when the French, through the
Napoleonic wars, were exporting the principles of their Revolution to all
Europe, and in 1798 to Egypt.
The
picture has become even more intimidating during the first three decades of the
19th century, at the epoch of the industrial revolution in Europe. In 1839 and
later on in 1856, the Ottomans promulgated two edicts with the intention to
modernize the apparatus of the state and the societies it controlled. Thus the
“minorities” saw their rights publicly acknowledged for the first
time, in addition to a manifest desire to abolish the tax-farming system, iltizâm,
and a
partial “modernization” of the judicial system and the bureaucracy.
At
the end of the First War, and despite an ambitious program of reforms (Tanzîmât), the empire had
already been totally dismantled
and divided, after the Sykes-Picot agreement of 1916, between zones of Russian,
British, and French influence. The newly created societies, in their actual
political and geographic frameworks, are hence very recent—mostly from
the Second World War and after.
*
* *
In
pointing out, during the so-called Gulf War, to the world community that the
Kuwaiti state is nothing but a “fictitious” construction of the
British Mandate, the Iraqis typically omit to mention that the whole area known
as the Fertile Crescent (Lebanon, Syria, Iraq, Palestine, and Jordan) as well
as the Arabian peninsula (Saudi Arabia, the Gulf states, and Yemen) are all the
product of British and French colonial policies between the two World Wars.
These societies which were under Ottoman rule for over four centuries, had
their social and economic structures shaped by the broader policies of the
Ottoman Empire. During the colonial period, and later when their status for
“independence” has been recognized, these societies, previously
part of a world-Empire, found themselves within geographic borders that were
soon to be qualified by their national leaders as “artificial.” The
existence of Israel, among others, is still considered as part of this
“artificial” construct, hence “illegitimate” and alien
in the eyes of the local Arab populations.
What
the Middle East might be globally witnessing, as we are heading towards the
21st century, is a development far more important than a battle for the control
of oil resources, and the inter-Arab struggle between the haves and the
haves-not, or the growth and perseverance of Islamic movements. In fact, such
factors might be only catalysts for deeper historical processes which could
involve the restructuring of the area known as the Fertile Crescent and the
Arabian peninsula into new political, social, and economic entities. This is
not intended as an optimistic statement of any kind, but more as an agenda for
research.
Roughly
speaking, in terms of political structures, the above mentioned geographic area
is divided between military dictatorships (Syria, Iraq, and Yemen), tribal
monarchies (Saudi Arabia and the rest of the Gulf states), a semi-democracy
like Lebanon which collapsed in 1975, the Jordanian buffer-zone-state which
only few years ago completed its first free parliamentary elections (with a
strong presence for the Muslim Brothers), and finally the democracy of the
Jewish state that some analysts do not hesitate to qualify as
“tribal.” Since the 1940s it has become customary for most of these
states not
to recognize each other’s borders. Lebanon for example has never been
officially recognized by Syria, and the Syrian domination of Lebanon since 1976
probably marks the beginning of a major reshaping of the political and economic
structures of the Levant region. The non-recognition of Israel by many of its
Arab neighbors, even in its pre-1967 borders, is another example of the
fragility of the borders and states left by the colonial powers. And more
recently, the Iraqi invasion and annexation of Kuwait has added a new dimension
to the older conflicts. What in fact the Gulf crisis has shown is a widening in
the gap between tribal monarchies and military dictatorships in this region.
This
gap, often referred to in the media as that between the haves and the haves-not,
is not only caused by an unequal distribution of wealth among these societies.
It is rather related to the differences in the political structures between the
tribal monarchies and the military dictatorships. Since the beginning of the
Gulf War, there has been an overemphasis in the media and the Pentagon as to
the unexpectedly huge size of Iraq’s one million men army. But this army
proved to be largely ineffective and slow during the war with Iran, and its
semi-victory after eight years of heavy losses did not improve its status
considerably. To understand the role and function of the army in the Arab world
one should not think in terms of military and technological efficacy. These
armies are indeed primarily a powerful tool for social integration and mobility.
By
creating borders between and across tribal, confessional, and ethnic groups,
the mandatory powers not only imposed new barriers between these groups, but
more important, thought they could consecrate the old divisions by endowing
some of the dominating groups with state powers they hitherto lacked. The
result has been the emergence of military dictatorships which turned out to be
a combination of classical forms of Khaldûnian political power based on
local and regional “group feelings” (‘asabiyya) usually encountered in
the majority of Arab/Islamic societies, and Eastern Bloc types of states.
Although the party and the army play an important role in social integration
and enjoy a broad tribal, ethnic, and confessional basis, this diversification becomes
narrower as we move up in the social hierarchy and the commanding military and
political posts. Thus in Syria and Iraq, key military and political positions
are respectively in the hands of the ‘Alawis and the Sunnis Takritis.
Alliances and networks are basically in terms of marriages restricted between
families and clans of these élite groups. However, it is important to
note that some key positions are also occupied by minorities (Christians,
Kurds, among others), and by individuals outside the dominating clan (even
though from the same
ethnic/confessional group).
By
contrast, tribal monarchies keep such restrictions to the entire social
structure. Not only ministers, but even diplomats who represent the monarchy
abroad belong to the same family and clan. (The Kuwaiti and Saudi ambassadors
in Washington are examples of this politics.) This is why the army in such
societies cannot play a role of “social integration,” and their
enrollment is limited to soldiers belonging to the dominating tribe and to
mercenaries. Thus according to a report published by Le Nouvel Observateur (19-25 July 1990), the Saudi army
(65,000 for a population of 13 million) is greatly composed of Moroccan,
Egyptian, Jordanian, and Pakistanis mercenaries. An entire unit, the 12th
armored division was in 1989 composed of 5,000 Pakistanis soldiers.
How
can such a monarchy persevere in its being? Basically, by buying off all its
opponents, its foreign residents, and Islamic clerics and institutions all over
the world. Thus the Saudi kingdom does not grant its citizenship to the five
million foreign workers. This political exclusion, however, is diluted by
salaries that used to be among the highest in the Middle East (but much less
now since the Saudi state went almost bankrupt since the Gulf war). And this
dismissal is not only restricted to foreigners, but also to Saudis who have
been trained abroad, and with no immediate links to the ruling family, and who
often complain that they are disregarded from the dominant positions and hardly
share in political decisions. In short, tribal monarchies have developed a
sophisticated form of apartheid and survive only by keeping their social
divisions visible, by perpetuating them, with a total lack of long term
policies that would develop some form of political participation for the
“excluded minorities.” By contrast, military dictatorships, even
though they do enjoy a much broader support from the army and party, have a
dual policy of ideologically denying all kinds of social differences (the
“secularism” of the Ba‘th), and at the same time playing
factions against each other for the perseverance of the state apparatus. Thus
although the Iraqi state presents itself as secular and pan-Arab, it fought an
eight-year war with Iran with no other purpose but to firmly control and
intimidate its 60% Shi‘i population, and it used chemical weapons against
some of its 25% non-Arab Kurds. The existence of Israel is less an effect of
Western colonialism than that of the “policy of minorities” adopted
by all Arab states.
Some
of the problems outlined above shall be discussed in terms of their respective
historical, anthropological, and political dimensions. Rather than a broad
survey on the contemporary Middle East, the course shall focus on few
“case histories.”
GENERAL
There
are weekly readings that we’ll discuss collectively in class. Your
participation is essential for the success of the course. You might be also
occasionally requested to prepare a presentation on a chapter or book which are
part of the weekly assignments. Presentations should be improvised and 5 to 10
minutes long. Do not prepare a written presentation. You’re also
requested, after submission of a first-draft, to make a short presentation of
your term-paper.
Besides
the two-draft research paper (see below the section on papers), you’re
expected to submit three interpretive essays. The final grade will be
calculated on the basis of one-fifth for each paper draft and one-fifth for
each interpretive essay. All interpretive essays are take-home and
you’ll be given a week to submit them. The purpose of the
interpretative essays is to give you the opportunity to go “beyond”
the literal meaning of the text and adopt interpretive and
“textual” techniques. A failing grade in all interpretive essays
means also a failing grade for the course, whatever your performance in the
paper is. All essays and papers must be submitted on time according to the
deadlines set below.
|
First
Interpretive Essay |
20% |
|
Second
Interpretive Essay |
20% |
|
Final Interpretive Essay |
20% |
|
Preliminary paper draft |
20% |
|
Term Paper: In case the term paper grade is superior to
the preliminary draft, it will count as 40%. |
20% |
·
It
is essential that you complete all readings on time, and that you come to class
well prepared.
·
The
first, second, and final interpretive essays are all based on our weekly
readings. They all consist of a single essay for which you’ll receive the
appropriate questions at the dates below, and you’ll submit them in class
a week later.
·
For
all five papers follow the procedures outlined below in the section on papers.
·
Essays
and papers are to be submitted only in class. Do not send any material as an
attached e-mail file or otherwise.
·
It’s
your responsibility to submit all essays and papers on time at the deadlines
below. Late papers will be graded accordingly, and papers submitted a week
after the deadline will be graded F.
·
Each
non-submitted paper will receive the grade of F, and your final grade will be
averaged accordingly.
·
The
mid-term paper is a free-topic exercise that you should begin researching as
soon as possible.
READINGS
•
Weeks 1, 2, 3: August 27 & September 3 & 10 (LSC)
August
29 & September 5 & 12 (LSC, WTC)
Donald Quataert,
The Ottoman Empire,
Cambridge 0521633605
•
Weeks 4 & 5: September 17 & 24
September
19 & 26
Margaret Lee
Meriwether, The kin who count,
U of Texas Press 0292752245
September 26: first interpretive essay
•
Weeks 6 & 7: October 1 & 8
October
3 & 10
October 15: mid-semester
break
Ahmad Rashid, Taliban, Yale 0300089023
•
Weeks 8 & 9: October 17
October
22 & 24
R.
Stephen Humphreys, Between Memory and Desire: The Middle East in a Troubled
Age,
University of California Press; ISBN: 0520229185
October 24: second interpretive essay
•
Weeks 10 & 11: October 29 & November 5
October
31 & November 7
Michael Barnett,
Dialogues in Arab politics,
Columbia 0231109199
November 7: first draft deadline
•
Weeks 12 & 13: November 12 & 19
November
14 & 21
Thanksgiving: November
28
Bernard Lewis, Islam
and the West, Oxford
0195090616
November 21: final interpretive essay
•
Week 14: November 26 & December 3 (LSC only)
Discussion and
presentation of term-papers
(if you’re
unable to meet for this last session, make an appointment: you’ll not
receive a grade unless you’ve completed a presentation of your paper.)
December 3: final draft deadline
&
submission of final interpretive essay
PAPERS
You
are requested to write one major research paper to be submitted during the last
session, Thursday, December 3. You will have to submit, however, a first draft
of this paper on Tuesday, November 7. The first draft should be as complete as
possible and follow the same presentation and writing guidelines as your final
draft, and it will count as 20% of your total grade unless the final draft is
of superior quality. The purpose of the first draft is to let you assess your
research and writing skills and improve the final version of your paper. It is
advisable that you choose a research topic and start preparing a bibliography
as soon as possible. I would strongly recommend that you consult with me before
making any final commitment. It would be preferable to keep the same topic for both
drafts. You will be allowed, however, after prior consultation, to change your
topic if you wish to do so.
You
may choose any topic related to the social, economic, political, and cultural
history of Islam and the Middle East since the prophetic mission in the 7th
century a.d. until the rise of the
Ottomans and the latest developments of this century. Papers should be
analytical and conceptual. Avoid pure narratives and chronologies and construct
your paper around a main thesis.
Kate L. Turabian, A Manual for Writers of
Term Papers, Theses, and Dissertations, 5th ed., Chicago: University of Chicago Press,
1987. Intended for students and other writers of papers not written for
publication. Useful material on notes and bibliographies.
Keep
in mind the following when preparing your preliminary and final drafts:
·
once
you’ve decided on a paper-topic and prepared a preliminary bibliography,
send an abstract and bibliography of your topic to the class-list
<h313-l@luc.edu> (see below) no later than November 7. Your abstract
should include: (i) title; (ii) description; (iii) sources; (iv) methodology
(e.g. suggestions on how to read sources). Your preliminary draft will not
be accepted unless you’ve submitted an on-line abstract.
·
preliminary
drafts should be submitted on time, November 7.
·
preliminary
drafts should be complete and include footnotes and an annotated
bibliography.
(The Turabian reference above is annotated: it briefly spells what the book is about
and to whom it might be useful. The same applies to many of the titles in the
bibliography below.)
·
do
not submit an outline as a first draft.
·
incomplete
and poorly written first drafts will not be accepted, and you’ll be
advised to revise your first draft completely.
·
if
you submit a single draft throughout the semester, you’ll receive F for
20% of the total and your final grade will be averaged accordingly.
·
the
oral presentation is an essential aspect of your grade; if you can’t
attend the last session, request an appointment. Absences will only be accepted
after prior approval from the Dean’s Office.
·
your
final draft should take into consideration all the relevant comments provided
on your earlier draft:
·
all
factual and grammatical mistakes should be corrected, in addition to other
stylistic revisions.
·
passages
indicated as “revise” or “unclear” or
“awkward” should be totally revised.
·
when
specific additional references have been suggested, you should do your best to
incorporate them into your material.
·
there
might be several additional suggestions in particular on your overall
assumptions and methodology. It will be up to you to decide what to take into
consideration.
·
Submit
the final draft with your preliminary corrected one.
·
if
you’re interested in comments on your final paper and interpretive essay,
request an appointment by e-mail.
Please
use the following guidelines regarding the format of all five papers:
·
use
8x10 white paper (the size and color of this paper). Do not use legal size or
colored paper.
·
use
a typewriter, laser printer or a good inkjet printer and hand in the original.
·
only
type on one side of the paper.
·
should
be double spaced, with single spaced footnotes at the end of each page and an annotated
bibliography
at the end.
·
keep
ample left and right margins for comments and corrections of at least 1.25
inches each.
·
all
pages should be numbered and stapled.
·
a
cover page should include the following: paper’s title, course number and
section, your name, address, e-mail, and telephone.
E-MAIL
DISCUSSION LIST
An
open e-mail discussion list is available: each message—whether mine or
from any student—will reach anyone else on the list, so that every
subscriber could directly write to the list.
·
You
should subscribe to this list as soon as possible, preferably by the first week
of classes.
·
The
forum list is free speech and not subject to any censorship: each message is
posted directly and not subject to review from the list’s coordinator.
The contents of the messages are the own responsibility of their authors.
·
Updates
on the syllabus—in particular on the readings—will be posted
whenever necessary.
·
Discussions
on the weekly readings and the interpretive essays are particularly encouraged.
·
You’re
expected to post at least one message regarding your term-paper so that
everyone knows what others are working on (see supra the section on papers
regarding the content of your message).
·
All
other messages not directly related to the course, whatever their nature, are
also welcomed.
·
The
list will be kept for an additional semester once the course is over by
December. To unsubscribe, follow the instructions below.
To
join the list, please send an e-mail message to:
and
include as your e-mail message (leaving the Subject: field blank, if possible):
subscribe
H313-L first-name last-name
e.g.,
Janine Doe—you would type in:
subscribe
H313-L Janine Doe
GroupWise
Users at Loyola University Chicago: Please preface the 'listproc' address (or
subscription address) with 'internet:' in the To: field. For example:
To:
internet:listproc@luc.edu
Once
you’ve successfully subscribed (you’ll receive a confirmation
message with instructions), send all messages to the list’s address:
H313-L@luc.edu
Your
message will be automatically forwarded to all the list’s subscribers.
You should also receive a duplicate of your own message.
To
unsubscribe send an e-mail to listproc@luc.edu with the following message:
unsubscribe
h313-l first-name last-name
Do
not send any mail to my private address <zghazza@luc.edu>,
except for appointments or personal problems regarding the course. Suggestions
for term-papers topics should be posted directly at the class-list.
Problems
in joining the list? Questions? Send an e-mail to Brian Kinne <bkinne@luc.edu>.
notes from it services:
From:
"Jack Corliss, Loyola University Chicago" <jcorlis@orion.it.luc.edu>
Please
note that about 96% of all registered students have e-mail accounts, on the
GroupWise e-mail system (university e-mail system). We no longer encourage
students to obtain Orion accounts unless they plan to do personal web page
design and development.
Of
course, students can use whatever e-mail account they have to subscribe and
post to the class discussion list including AOL and Entereact. If you want to
send attachments to the students on the list then they should find out their
e-mail system handles attachments.
You
should also know that as of May 1997, anyone using the computer workstations in
any of the University computing centers and public-access labs are required to
have university network access account (which we call the UVID). This is
required whether the student plans to access the Internet resources, their
GroupWise or Orion e-mail, use word-processing to write their papers, whatever.
Therefore,
students are assigned these accounts automatically. However, if a student does
not remember his or her university network access account/password, and
registered late this year, then the student will need to go to the computing
center to have the password reassigned or a network access account set up
(usually takes 24 hours).
Please
note that some students may know this network access account as the GroupWise
account and password—an unfortunate nomenclature—but most likely
this is one and the same. Previously, we referred to these as GroupWise
accounts but now we are calling them university IDs (or UVID), or university
network access accounts.
The
computing centers have had to deal with this last semester, so please do not
hesitate to refer any students to the computing centers for assistance, or they
can call the Help Desk at 4-4444 and the Help Desk staff will re-assign a
network access password.
SELECTIVE
BIBLIOGRAPHY
The
following bibliography is highly selective and only restricted to books and
articles which in a way or another are representative of a particular
historical or sociological/anthropological trend. Students are thus encouraged,
when writing their papers, to use more extensive bibliographies related to the
topics they are dealing with. Some of the
books for our weekly discussion sessions include such bibliographies.
(It would better if you discuss with me your papers’ topics before you start writing.)
1.
Islam & The Early Empires—General
The
Qur’ân
is the holy book of the Muslims (in all their different factions and sects)
delivered by God in Arabic to the community of believers (umma) through the
“medium” of the Prophet Muhammad in sessions of
“revelation” (wahî). Thus Arabic is not only the language of
the Qur’ân (and the Sunna), but also a divine language, the
language of God. All translations of the Qur’ân are thus considered
as illegitimate and inaccurate. There are several such
“translations”/“interpretations” available. A classical
one would be that of A.J. Arberry, The Koran Interpreted (Oxford University
Press). For a recent “reading” of the Qur’ân, see
Jacques Berque, Relire le Coran (Paris: Albin Michel, 1993).
R.
Stephen Humphreys, Islamic History. A Framework for Inquiry (Princeton University
Press, 1991), is a long annotated and commented bibliography thematically
organized. Recommended for all those looking at the best in the field for
sources available in English, French and German. Some references to primary
sources, mainly Arabic medieval sources, are also included. The problem with
this “inquiry” is that it excludes from its field of investigation
all publications in modern Arabic, as well as Turkish and Persian. In short,
this book is an excellent tool for a primary survey on the status of the Middle
Eastern Studies field in Europe and North America.
Marshall
G. S. Hodgson, The Venture of Islam, 3 vols. (Chicago University Press, 1974), is a
landmark study on the “origins” of Islam and its historical
evolution into empires. Recommended for those interested in Islam within a
comparative religious and geographical perspective.
Ira
Lapidus, A History of Islamic Societies (Cambridge University Press, 1988), is a
complete fourteen-century history of Islamic societies. Chapters vary in depth
and horizon. No particular focus—Tedious to read.
Bernard
Lewis (ed.), The World of Islam (London: Thames and Hudson, 1976), is a
thematically organized book with chapters on literature, jurisprudence, sufism,
the cities, the Ottoman and modern experiences. Includes hundreds of
illustrations and maps.
Watt,
W. M., Muhammad at Mecca (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1953); Muhammad at Medina (Oxford: Clarendon
Press, 1956), both are classics describing the life of the Prophet and his
first achievements in Mecca and Medina.
Franz
Rozenthal, A History of Muslim Historiography (Leiden: E.J. Brill,
1952); 2d rev. ed., 1968.
Roy
Mottahedeh, Loyalty and Leadership in an Early Islamic Society (Princeton University
Press, 1980), an excellent book, based on primary sources from Southern Iraq
that describe the process and concept of bay‘a in early Islamic
thought.
Hugh
Kennedy, The Early Abbasid Caliphate: A Political History (London: Croom Helm,
1981).
Jacob
Lassner, The Shaping of Abbasid Rule (Princeton University Press, 1980).
Lassner,
Jacob, Islamic Revolution and Historical Memory: An Inquiry into the Art of
‘Abbâsid Apologetics (American Oriental
Series, number 66.) New Haven: American Oriental Society. 1986.
The
History of al-Tabarî (State University of New York Press, 1989), is a
multi-volume series of the translation of the “History” of
Tabarî, one of the major historians and interpreters of the
Qur’ân of the early Islamic and empire periods.
al-Shâfi‘î,
Risâla. Treatise on the Foundations of Islamic Jurisprudence, translated by Majid
Khadduri (Islamic Texts Society, 1987). Shâfi‘î was the
founding father of one of the four major schools of Sunni jurisprudence and the
Risâla
contains some of his major theoretical foundations on the notions analogy, qiyâs, and the ijmâ‘, consensus of the
community.
Martin
Lings, Muhammad. His Life Based on the Earliest Sources (Rochester, 1983).
Newby,
Gordon Darnell, The Making of the Last Prophet: A Reconstruction of the
Earliest Biography of Muhammad (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press,
1989).
Maxime
Rodinson, Muhammad
(Pantheon, 1971), is an interesting interpretation of the early Islamic period
based on a social and economic analysis of the Arabian Peninsula at the dawn of
Islam.
M.
A. Shaban, Islamic History. A New Interpretation, 2 vol. (Cambridge
University Press, 1971), is an attempt towards a new interpretation of the
‘Abbâsid Revolution of the eight century as a movement of
assimilation of Arabs and non-Arabs into an “equal rights” Empire.
Mohammad
Hashim Kamali, Principles of Islamic Jurisprudence (Cambridge, 1991). See
also the great classic of Joseph Schacht, The Origins of Muhammadan
Jurisprudence
(Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1950).
Ignaz
Goldziher, Introduction to Islamic Theology and Law (Princeton University
Press, 1981).
Fred
Donner, The Early Islamic Conquests (Princeton University Press, 1981),
reconstructs the early Islamic Conquests (futûhât) from a wealth of
Arabic chronicles and literary and ethnographic sources.
Bernard
Lewis, The Political Language of Islam (Chicago University Press, 1988),
discusses the notion of “government” and “politics” in
Islamic societies.
Ann
Lambton, Continuity and Change in Medieval Persia. Aspects of
Administrative, Economic and Social History, 11th-14th Century (The Persian Heritage
Foundation, 1988).
Dominique
Urvoy, Ibn Rushd (Averroes) (Routledge, 1991). Henry Corbin, Avicenna
and the Visionary Recital (Princeton University Press, 1960), is an analysis and
interpretation of Hayy ibn Yaqzân.
Salma
Khadra Jayyusi, editor, The Legacy of Muslim Spain (Leiden: Brill, 1993).
See also L. P. Harvey, Islamic Spain, 1250 to 1500 (Chicago University
Press, 1990).
2.
The Ottoman Empire
•
REFERENCE
For
a general social history of The Ottoman Empire, see H.A.R. Gibb and Harold
Bowen, Islamic Society and the West, Volume One, 2 parts (London: Oxford University
Press, 1950-57).
For
a general chronological history of the Ottoman Empire, see Stanford Shaw & Ezel
Shaw, History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey, 2 vols., (Cambridge,
1977). See also M. A. Cook (ed.), A History of the Ottoman Empire to 1730 (Cambridge University
Press, 1976).
Paul
Wittek, The Rise of the Ottoman Empire (London, 1963). A short monograph on the
nature of early Ottoman expansion.
For
a narrative account of the rise of the Ottoman Empire viewed from the
standpoint of historical geography, see Donald Edgar Pitcher, An Historical
Geography of the Ottoman Empire. From earliest times to the end of the
Sixteenth Century with detailed maps to illustrate the expansion of the
Sultanate
(Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1972).
George
Young, Corps de droit ottoman, 7 vol. (Oxford, 1905-6) contains selections from the Ottoman judicial
code.
• GENERAL
HISTORIES
Robert
Mantran (ed.), Histoire de l’Empire ottoman (Paris: Fayard, 1989).
Barbara
Jelavich, The Ottoman Empire (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1973).
Halil
Inalcik, The Ottoman Empire (New York: Praeger Publishers, 1973).
Norman
Itzkowitz, Ottoman Empire and Islamic Tradition (New York: Knopf, 1972)
Peter
Mansfield, The Ottoman Empire and Its Successors (New York: St.
Martin’s Press, 1973).
William
Miller, The Ottoman Empire and Its Successors, 1801-1927 (New York: Octagon
Books, 1966).
Smith
William Cooke, The Ottoman Empire and Its Tributary States (Chicago: Argonot,
1968).
• THE
OTTOMAN EMPIRE IN THE INTER-STATE SYSTEM
Alexander
H. de Groot, The Ottoman Empire and the Dutch Republic (Leiden, 1978).
Leopold
von Ranke, The Ottoman and the Spanish Empires in the Sixteenth and
Seventeenth Centuries
(New York: AMS Press, 1975).
Gustav
Bayerle, Ottoman Diplomacy in Hungary (Bloomington: Indiana University, 1972).
J.
C. Hurewitz, Diplomacy in the Near and Middle East. A Documentary Record, 2 vol. (Princeton,
1956), contains a selection of administrative documents, edicts, and treaties since 1535.
•
WORLD-SYSTEM THEORY
There
has been numerous studies within the last two decades that describe in economic
terms how the Ottoman societies have reacted to what is now known as the
process of “incorporation” of the Ottoman Empire in the
world-economy. Despite their merits, “world-systems” analyses are
weak in understanding and interpreting cultures and social structures. See for
example, Immanuel Wallerstein & Resat Kasaba, “Incorporation into the
World-Economy: Change in the Structure of the Ottoman Empire,1750-1839,”
in J.-L. Bacqué-Grammont & Paul Dumont, eds., Économie et
sociétés dans l'Empire ottoman (Paris: CNRS, 1983), 335-54. Some of the
most recent titles in “world-systems” include the following:
Huri
Islamoglu-Inan, ed., The Ottoman Empire and the World-Economy (New York: Cambridge
University Press, 1988).
Caglar
Keyder, ed., Ottoman Empire: Nineteenth-Century Transformations, in Review, 11(1988).
Caglar
Keyder, State and Class in Turkey: A Study in Capitalist Development (London & New York:
Verso, 1987).
Resat
Kasaba, The Ottoman Empire and the World Economy: The 19th Century (Albany, NY: SUNY
Press, 1988).
Pamuk,
Sevket, The Ottoman Empire and European Capitalism,1820-1913: Trade,
Investment, and Production (Cambridge & New York: Cambridge University Press,
1987).
•
SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC HISTORY
Halil
Inalcik, Studies in Ottoman Social and Economic History (London: Variorum Reprints,
1985), is a reproduction of a series of articles on the
“beginnings” of the Ottoman Empire, the impact of the Annales school on Ottoman
historiography, etc., by a leading figure in the field of Ottoman studies. See
also by the same author his collected studies under the title The Ottoman
Empire: Conquest, Organization and Economy (London: Variorum Reprints, 1978).
Halil
Inalcik, “Military and Fiscal Transformation of the Ottoman Empire,
1600-1700,” Archivum Ottomanicum, 6(1980), 283-337, reproduced in Inalcik
(1985), discusses the transformation of the Ottoman tax-farming system from the
timâr
to the iltizâm. See also Bruce McGowan, Economic Life in Ottoman Europe.
Taxation, Trade and the Struggle for Land, 1600-1800 (Cambridge University
Press, 1981).
Kemal
H. Karpat, Ottoman Population: Demographic and Social Characteristics (Madison: The
University of Wisconsin Press, 1985). This book attempts, on the basis of
original archive materials, to show the demographic dimension of Middle Eastern
and Balkan societies under Ottoman rule in the 19th century. See the review of
Inalcik in IJMES,
21/3 (1989).
Ömer
Lutfi Barkan, “The Price Revolution of the Sixteenth Century: A Turning
Point in the Economic History of the Near East,” IJMES, 6(1975), 3-28. A classical
article which analyzes the effects of one of the first debasements of the
Ottoman currency in the 16th century.
Uriel
Heyd, Studies in Old Ottoman Criminal Law, ed. by V. L. Ménage (Oxford,
1973) discusses, among others, the relation between the Islamic sharî‘a and the Ottoman qânûn.
Benjamin
Braude & Bernard Lewis (eds.), Christians and Jews in the Ottoman
Empire: The Functioning of a Plural Society. Volume 1, The Central Lands; Volume 2, The
Arabic-Speaking Lands. (New York, 1982), contains a wide range of articles on
“minority” groups in the Ottoman Empire.
On
women in the Ottoman Empire, see Fanny Davis, The Ottoman Lady. A Social
History from 1718 to 1918 (New York: Greenwood Press, 1986).
Ehud
R. Toledano, The Ottoman Slave Trade and Its Suppression (Princeton University
Press, 1982), stresses the key role of the British in the elimination of the
trade in black slaves from Africa and the importance of the Ottoman’s own
actions in abolishing trade in white slaves from the lands around the Black
Sea.
Suraiya
Faroqhi, Towns and Townsmen of Ottoman Anatolia. Trade, Crafts and Food
Production in an Urban Setting, 1520-1650 (Cambridge University Press, 1984).
Charles
Issawi, Economic History of Turkey (Chicago, 1980), is an account, mainly based on
the European consular correspondence of the 19th century, of the Turkish
economy during the period of Western colonialism and imperialism.
Gabriel
Baer, “The Administrative, Economic and Social Functions of Turkish Guilds,”
IJMES,
1(1970), 28-50. Haim Gerber, “Guilds in Seventeenth-Century Anatolian
Bursa,” Asian and African Studies (AAS), 11(1976), 59-86. Orhan
Kurmus, “Some Aspects of Handicraft and Industrial Production in Ottoman
Anatolia, 1800-1915,” AAS, 15(1981), 85-101. Edward C. Clark, “The
Ottoman Industrial Revolution,” IJMES, 5(1974), 65-76. Bernard
Lewis, “The Islamic Guilds,” Economic History Review, 8(1937), 20-37.
Jacques
Thobie, Intérêts et impérialisme français dans
l'empire Ottoman
(Paris, 1977) focuses on the effects of French imperialism on the Ottoman
Empire in general and on some Arab Provinces in particular (Syria and Lebanon).
• THE
STATE, IDEOLOGY, & RELIGION
Serif
Mardin, The Genesis of Young Ottoman Thought (Princeton University
Press,1962) studies the effects of Western “liberal” thought on the
Ottoman intelligentsia of the 19th century and the “origins” of the
Tanzimât
reforms of 1839. See also by the same author, “Ideology and Religion in
the Turkish Revolution,” International Journal of Middle East Studies (IJMES), 2(1971), 197-211. See
also R. C. Repp, The Müfti of Istanbul: A Study in the Development of
the Ottoman Learned Hierarchy (London: Ithaca, 1986) and J. R. Barnes, An
Introduction to Religious Foundations in the Ottoman Empire (Leiden: E.J.
Brill,1986). Richard L. Chambers, “The Ottoman Ulema and the
Tanzimat” in Nikki R. Keddie (ed.), Scholars, Saints, and Sufis:
muslim Religious Institutions Since 1500 (Berkeley-Los Angeles: University of California
Press, 1972).
Cornell
H. Fleisher, Bureaucrat and Intellectual in the Ottoman Empire: The
Historian Mustafa Ali, 1546-1600 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986).
The Ottoman 16th century through the eyes of the historian Mustafa Ali. See the
critical review article (especially on the much debated issue of
“decline”) by Rhoads Murphey, “Mustafa Ali and the Politics
of Cultural Despair,” IJMES, 21(1989), 243-255; idem, Regional Structure
in the Ottoman Economy (Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1987). A Sultanic memorandum
of 1636 A.D. concerning the sources and uses of the tax-farm revenues of
Anatolia and the coastal and northern portions of Syria.
Cornell
H. Fleisher, “Royal Authority, Dynastic Cyclism, and ‘Ibn
Khaldûnism’ in Sixteenth-Century Ottoman Letters,” Journal
of Asian and African Studies, 18/3-4(1983), 198-220.
Bernard
Lewis, The Emergence of Modern Turkey (Oxford University Press, 1968[1961]) A survey
of the first Turkish pan-movements till the proclamation of the Turkish
Republic and its aftermath. See also Uriel Heyd, Foundations of Turkish
Nationalism
(Westport, Conn.: Hyperion Press, 1979).
Kemal
H. Karpat, “The Transformations of the Ottoman State, 1789-1908,” IJMES, 3(1972), 243-81.
Carter
Findley, Bureaucratic Reform in the Ottoman Empire. The Sublime Porte, 1789-1922 (Princeton University
Press, 1980); idem, Ottoman Civil Officialdom. A Social History (Princeton University
Press, 1989) reassesses Ottoman accomplishments and failures in turning an
archaic scribal corps into an effective civil service.
For
a political anthropology of the Ottoman Empire and the cultural barriers for
its development, see Ilkay Sunar, State and Society in the Politics of
Turkey’s Development (Ankara, 1974).
3.
The Arab Provinces. General.
The
work of Charles Issawi gives the best synthesis of the economic development of
the Arab provinces of the Ottoman Empire (Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Palestine,
Egypt). Among his numerous works, Economic History of the Middle East (Chicago, 1966), Economic
History of the Middle East and North Africa (New York, 1982), The Fertile
Crescent, 1800-1914, A Documentary Economic History (New York: Oxford
University Press, 1988).
Another
excellent work of economic synthesis is Roger Owen’s The Middle East
in the World Economy
(London: Methuen, 1981).
William
Polk & Richard Chambers, eds., Beginnings of Modernization in the Middle
East (Chicago,
1968) contains some key articles by Karpat, Chevallier, Berque, Hourani, and
others. Highly recommended.
4.
Syria, Lebanon, & Palestine
The
Lebanese historiography did not progress much beyond the classical works of
Chevallier (1971), Harik (1968), and Smilyanskaya (1965), despite a number of
interesting recent publications in the field.
Dominique
Chevallier, La société du mont Liban à
l’époque de la révolution industrielle en Europe (Paris, 1971) is a
complete study on the economic, cultural, and political effects of the
industrial revolution on Mount Lebanon during the 19th century. See also by the
same author, Villes et travail en Syrie, du XIXe au XXe siècle (Paris, 1982).
Iliya
Harik, Politics and Change in a Traditional Society, Lebanon, 1711-1845 (Princeton, N. J.,
1968), is very powerful in analyzing the cultural transformations of the
societies of Mount Lebanon. The chapters on the process of
“rationalization” (in the sense of Weber) of the Maronite Church
are among the best in the field.
I.
M. Smilyanskaya’s thesis, Krestyanskoe dvizhenie v Livane (Moscow,1965), is
unfortunately only available in the original Russian with a complete Arabic
translation (Beirut, 1971). Some chapters are translated in English in Issawi
(1966 & 1988). Smilyanskaya’s thesis is an attempt to explain the
peasant’s movements of the 19th century in terms of class struggle rather
than inter-confessional struggles.
Boutros
Labaki, Introduction à l’histoire économique du Liban (Beirut,1984), focuses
mainly on the production of silk in Mount Lebanon during the 19th and early
20th centuries.
Leila
Fawaz, Merchants and Migrants in Nineteenth Century Beirut (Cambridge, Mass.,
1983), covers the rapid evolution of Beirut during the 19th century from a
small provincial town to a key commercial city.
William
Polk, The Opening of South Lebanon (Cambridge, Mass., 1963), is another classical
study of Mount Lebanon.
Mikhâyil
Mishâqa, Murder, Mayhem, Pillage, and Plunder. The History of the
Lebanon in the 18th and 19th Centuries, translated from the Arabic by Wheeler M.
Thackston, Jr. (Albany: State University of New York Press,1988), is a 19th
century chronicle by Mishâqa (1800-1888) who among other things served as
financial comptroller to the Shihâb emirs of Hâsbayyâ and in
his later years was a physician and consul to the United States in Damascus.
Thomas
Philipp, The Syrians in Egypt, 1725-1975 (Stuttgart, 1985), discusses the
immigration of Syrians (mainly Christians) to Egypt starting with the Ottoman
period.
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